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By Maria Thornhill, Rolf Arne Kleiv

INTRODUCTION The last decade has given rise to an increasing number of deep-sea mining concepts (DSMCs) outlining technical solutions for the production chain from seafloor mining to mineral or metal extraction. The vast technological and logistical challenges coupled with immature but rapidly evolving technology has spawned a great variety in proposed concepts, and the exact implications of the phrase ‘best available technology’ is very much an open question. DSMCs differ significantly with respect to choice of technology, technological readiness level, degree of resource utilization, logistics, OPEX and CAPEX requirements, overall profitability, legal and political implications, not to mention environmental impact. Hence, a system for classifying concepts could provide a useful identification and structuring tool when performing economic, judicial or environmental assessments of DSMCs, as well as offering a general terminology to describe concepts sharing fundamental traits. This abstract proposes a DSMC classification system based on how a concept makes use of mineral separation at the different stages in the ore’s journey from the deposit to the ocean surface and ultimately to onshore facilities. Mineral separation, as a process step, is the key factor in determining both the state and mass flow of materials along the production chain and has, as such, a decisive effect on economy and environmental impact of any deep-sea mining project. A DSMC that is based on bringing the entire volume of broken ore to onshore facilities for processing will look very different from a concept based on pre-concentration (i.e. mineral separation) at the seafloor. Whereas the latter offers savings in the form of reduced energy cost for vertical transport, it also represents a substantial additional technological challenge. Furthermore, whether or not a concept relies on mineral processing at the seafloor or on a floating facility at the ocean surface above the deposit also determines the point at which mineral separation waste (i.e. tailings) must be managed. Different concepts offer different opportunities for tailings deposition, and are at the same time bound by different requirements.

Jan 1, 2018

By Se-Won Chang

This is a part of the joint KIGAM-GNS-NIWA 3-year study of ferromanganese nodules on the Campbell Drift, east of Campbell Plateau to determine age distribution, growth rates and geochemical evolution in relation to geographic setting. During the research voyage SAA3 by R/V Tangaroa (TAN 9909) in July-August 1999, seafloor sampling and camera towing were conducted along the two transects across the known flow path of the Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC) perpendicular to the lowermost margin of the Campbell Plateau and Bollons Seamount. The four major nodule facies, SHH (slope hydrogenetic nodules with high density), AHH (abyssal hydrogenetic nodules with high density), ADH (abyssal diagenetic nodules with high density), and ADL (abyssal diagenetic nodules with low density) were identified. Two additional minor nodule facies, SIB (slope irregular nodules with ice-rafted boulders) and SHB (slope hydrogenetic nodules with boulders and crust), of localized distributions are also identified.

Jan 1, 2003

By Michael J. Cruickshank

The University of Hawaii, Ocean Basins Division (OBD) shares, equally with the University of Mississippi, Continental Shelf Division (CSD), congressional funding for the Marine Minerals Technology Center, a Generic Minerals Center under the U.S. Department of the Interior's Mineral Institutes Program. The State of Hawaii supports the program by the provision of salaries for the Executive and Technical Directors and by the provision of fiscal, administrative, and facilities support through the Hawaii Natural Energy Institute, the Research Corporation of the University of Hawaii, and the School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology. The Center's program of research, technology development and education is multi-disciplinary and international in scope. Activities since the MMTC/OBD was established in June 1988 have included: Research projects * Development of a Free-Fall Seafloor Hard Substrate Corer. * The Microtopography of Manganese Crust deposits. * Evaluation of the Cobalt Crust Continuum on Seamounts in the Hawaiian Exclusive Economic Zone. * Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometer. * Computer Aided Design Methodology for Power, Communication and Strength Umbilicals. * Characterization and Environmental Impact Assessment of Tropical * Reef-derived sands for Beach Replenishment.

Jan 1, 1991

By P. Mikhailik

Recently, characterized by fast development high- and nano-technology, demand for rare and trace metals has increased. One of such metals is gallium. Gallium compounds, mainly GaAs, are used in medicine, to manufacture optoelectronic devices, microwave techniques, devices of solar power and infrared optics, etc. The basic gallium industrial deposits are known only on land. There are bauxites (50 ppm), nepheline rocks and ores (36-38 ppm, minerals concentrators are nepheline and sodalite), Zn-Pb-Cu ores (5000-12000 ppm, minerals concentrators are gallite, germanite, sphalerite, bornite), sulphide-polymetallic and Pb-Zn ores (10-32 ppm, minerals concentrators sphalerite, chalcopyrite) (Vershkovskya et al., 1998). High concentration of gallium are observed in hydrothermal massive sulphides of a Mid-Okinawa Trough (The South Chinese Sea) and Sujo seamount (The Philippine Sea) (Noguchi et al., 2007). As it is known, deep-sea massive sulphides and associated Fe-Mn crusts are products of hydrothermal fluid discharge. High-temperature massive sulphides precipitation are the first, and low-temperature Fe-Mn crusts deposition is the last process of hydrothermal mineralization (Cronan, 1982). Hydrogenic crusts and nodules of the World ocean are characterized by low concentration of Ga, close to clarke (19 ppm) (Kobaltbogatye.., 2002). Hydrogenic crusts from the Sea of Okhotsk are exception, because Ga concentrations are exceeded clarke in 3,5 times (Mikhailik, et al., 2009). Complex studying of Fe-Mn crusts from deep-sea basins volcanic seamounts of the Sea of Japan has shown their hydrothermal-sedimentary genesis (Mikhailik, 2009). High gallium concentration (up to 850 ppm) was established in these crusts by ICP-MS (Agilent 7500C). Microprobe research (JXA-8100) of samples Fe-Mn crusts has not revealed the gallium minerals concentrators. It suggests that, gallium in Fe-Mn crusts of the Sea of Japan is sorb substance.

Jan 1, 2010

By P. Mikhailik

Recently, characterized by fast development high- and nano-technology, demand for rare and trace metals has increased. One of such metals is gallium. Gallium compounds, mainly GaAs, are used in medicine, to manufacture optoelectronic devices, microwave techniques, devices of solar power and infrared optics, etc. The basic gallium industrial deposits are known only on land. There are bauxites (50 ppm), nepheline rocks and ores (36-38 ppm, minerals concentrators are nepheline and sodalite), Zn-Pb-Cu ores (5000-12000 ppm, minerals concentrators are gallite, germanite, sphalerite, bornite), sulphide-polymetallic and Pb-Zn ores (10-32 ppm, minerals concentrators sphalerite, chalcopyrite) (Vershkovskya et al., 1998). High concentration of gallium are observed in hydrothermal massive sulphides of a Mid-Okinawa Trough (The South Chinese Sea) and Sujo seamount (The Philippine Sea) (Noguchi et al., 2007). As it is known, deep-sea massive sulphides and associated Fe-Mn crusts are products of hydrothermal fluid discharge. High-temperature massive sulphides precipitation are the first, and low-temperature Fe-Mn crusts deposition is the last process of hydrothermal mineralization (Cronan, 1982). Hydrogenic crusts and nodules of the World ocean are characterized by low concentration of Ga, close to clarke (19 ppm) (Kobaltbogatye.., 2002). Hydrogenic crusts from the Sea of Okhotsk are exception, because Ga concentrations are exceeded clarke in 3,5 times (Mikhailik, et al., 2009). Complex studying of Fe-Mn crusts from deep-sea basins volcanic seamounts of the Sea of Japan has shown their hydrothermal-sedimentary genesis (Mikhailik, 2009). High gallium concentration (up to 850 ppm) was established in these crusts by ICP-MS (Agilent 7500C). Microprobe research (JXA-8100) of samples Fe-Mn crusts has not revealed the gallium minerals concentrators. It suggests that, gallium in Fe-Mn crusts of the Sea of Japan is sorb substance.

Jan 1, 2010

By Fernando J. A. S. Barriga

Exploration for active seafloor hydrothermal vent fields has been highly successful, and more than 300 such fields have been discovered to date. Some will most probably be mined, given their high metal grades (Cu, Zn, Au and others). However, the current practice detects active systems, and activity rates, not the size of the deposits. This strategy may leave undetected some of the best targets, for several reasons as follows: 1. Large hydrothermal plumes are a measure of dispersion of ore components, not of efficiency in the generation of orebodies; 2. Deposits formed a few hundred years (or more) before present will generally have ceased their activity and will not be detected by plume studies; 3. Deposits formed under a cover rock (up to a few meters of sediments, volcaniclastics, or the like) may exhibit only minor seafloor hydrothermal activity, possibly diffuse flow. Cover rocks will often host hanging wall rock alteration, expressed in geochemical and mineralogical haloes. It has been demonstrated in many instances, especially for deposits formed in the geological past, now exposed on land, that ore genesis under a cover rock is one of the most suitable processes for generating large massive sulfide deposits. One of the great challenges for submarine resource knowledge will be to develop adequate exploration strategies for sizeable orebodies, not necessarily hydrothermal vent fields, sometimes hidden under a cover rock.

Jan 1, 2011

By Jung-Keuk Kang

Recently, the Korean government prepared a strategy for deep seabed mining, which consists of three stages for 20 years until 2010. The first step of the program is focused to conduct deep seabed exploration until 1993. The apparent "hurry-and-spend to catch-up" policy that the Korean government has shown in deep seabed mineral exploration was motivated by an effort to qualify a prerequisite requirement to be a pioneer investor as a developing country under the terms of Resolution II and the New York Understanding. Since 1983, KORDI (Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute) under the auspices of the Korean government has carried out deep seabed mineral exploration. The KORDI had a joint exploration program with USGS from 1989 to 1991 aiming to evaluate the potentiality of manganese nodule in the western part of Clarion-Clipperton Zone as well as that of manganese crusts in the western Pacific. In 1992, Korean government accelerates its program by the confirmation of national policy and the equipment of new built research vessel, Onnuri-Ho. The RIV Onnuri-Ho is about 1400 G/T, which is equipped with various advanced instruments including GPS, multi-beam echosounder (Seabeam 2000), multi-channel seismic system, and MDM system.

Jan 1, 1992

By A. M. Olivarez

The elucidation of the theory of plate tectonics has provided a conceptual framework for understanding the formation and distribution of different types of ore deposits. For example, we now recognize that certain kinds of mineral deposits are generally associated with a particular type of plate boundary (i.e., massive sulfides often occur along divergent plate boundaries, whereas porphyry copper deposits are typically found along convergent boundaries). During certain geologic time periods, plate reorganization events have changed the relative proportion of different types of plate boundaries. Corresponding changes have been observed in the abundance and distribution of ores deposited during these times. The present study examines the temporal aspects of this relationship; i.e., do plate reorganization events play an active or passive role in ore formation? In other words, do plate reorganizations simply provide a more favorable tectonic setting in which ore formation can occur over significant time periods, or are they directly linked to the mineralization process? We have examined this question by comparing regional tectonic histories with the ages of known massive sulfide and porphyry copper deposits. Because these deposits, in particular massive sulfides, form as a result of hydrothermal activity, we have also compared regional tectonic histories with proxy indicators of this process in the marine sedimentary record. These indicators include increased mass accumulation rates of Ca, Fe, Mn, and opal, characteristic changes in the Sr/Ca and Mg/Ca ratios of biogenous carbonates, and shoaling of the carbonate compenstion

Jan 1, 1988

By Cameron Rees

The University of New South Wales Mining Research Centre (UMRC) has a longstanding research reputation in mining research, with particular expertise in mining systems, mining geomechanics and excavation engineering. The UMRC is now focusing this expertise on the potential of mining Seafloor Massive Sulphides (SMS). The UMRC has initiated a three-year research project that will identify and examine the requirements to effectively and efficiently mine SMS deposits. The major aims of this project are: ? To develop an understanding of the geomechanical characteristics and local physical environmental conditions associated with a ?typical? SMS deposit. ? To develop and evaluate a range of both conventional and innovative excavation processes for mining SMS deposits, and define the engineering parameters required for each extraction option, and ? To identify the materials handling and lifting requirements of the ?mined? SMS material, and the possible integration of the lifting system with the excavation processes considered.

Jan 1, 2002

By Siobhan Quayle

Managing sediment plumes under multiple jurisdictions Management of activities in the New Zealand EEZ can be characterized as a distributed basis of decision-making with each independent and separate decision-maker focused on specific elements of a proposal (environmental, work place safety, wildlife management, fisheries, navigation, oil spill). The New Zealand EEZ Act 2012 was intended as gap-filling legislation to address the lack of an environmental assessment lens for permissions to undertake certain activities in the New Zealand EEZ. These activities relate mostly to marine scientific research, dumping and discharges, oil and gas exploration and development, and seabed mining. The regulatory decision-maker for most EEZ Act marine consents is the New Zealand EPA. Since 2013 when this gap-filling legislation took effect, the EPA and its decision- making committees have processed three seabed mining applications. Two consents were refused, one consent was granted in 2017. A common feature of all consents has been the assessment and consideration of the scale, significance and effects of sediment plumes arising from the activity. One consent is for irons and mining in about 40m of water where the plumes reach the nearby coastal waters and shoreline, the second consent is far offshore but plumes extend far beyond the mining area (850 km2) in to rare coral habitats and in to a significant offshore fishery. A significant consideration for decision-makers is how the assessment and management of plumes under the EEZ Act interact with, and potentially overlap, management of such plumes under other legislation (Resource Management Act, Marine Mammals Protection Act, and Wildlife Act). This is in a statutory context where the EEZ Act requires explicit consideration of the nature and effect of other marine management regimes over the matter under consideration.

Jan 1, 2018

By Brenda J. Burd

A very extensive spatial and temporal database on benthic infauna and associated sediment metals has been collected for Island Copper Mine on Vancouver Island, B.C. Canada from 1969 (pre-discharge) to 1998 (3 years post-discharge). The tailings deposited as organically impoverished, copper-rich, clays, silts and sands distributed according to particle size, bottom turbidity currents and strong, vertically mixed tidal currents. In addition, a large deposition of coarser waste rock along the north shore of Rupert Inlet contributed substantial material in the shallower, near-field area.

Jan 1, 2001

By James C. Barker

Alaska's expansive continental shelf represents future opportunities for marine mineral development. Although today's metal prices and subsidized foreign mineral production continue to discourage industry investment in marine exploration worldwide, the longer term outlook is one of increasing costs on-shore with a dwindling land-base available on which to search for and extract minerals. Likely, the generations of the 21st century will increasingly recover their minerals from the sea-floor. Though largely unexplored, Alaska potentially represents a major port ion of the U.S. marine resources. Several factors demonstrate this. First, the Alaskan OCS is huge; 74% of the entire United States' continental shelf lies off of Alaska, and 54% of the U.S. coastline is Alaskan. Combined with the jurisdiction waters of the Soviet Far East, the Bering-Chukchi shelf is one of the world's largest tracts of shallow water. Second, Alaska is situated at the northwestern terminus of the mineral-rich American cordillera. From Chile to Alaska, major on-shore deposits of precious and base metals, ferroalloys, and industrial minerals are found in the tectonically disturbed belts of the cordillera. In 1988, the western U.S. cordilleran states produced 70% of this country's mineral output (excluding construction materials). Throughout the cordillera's entire 10,000 mile length, the rock units strike largely parallel to the coastline, but in Alaska they extend directly offshore and onto the continental shelf. Consequently, the mineral-rich terranes off of Alaska have a much more complex interaction with coastal and lit-

Jan 1, 1991

By John C. Wiltshire

Hawai'i is surrounded by a series of potentially valuable marine mineral deposits. These include manganese nodules between Hawai'i and Mexico, cobalt-rich manganese crusts and phosphorites in the Exclusive Economic Zone around the Hawaiian Island Archipelago, Johnston Island and the neigh- boring island states and sand and gravel deposits off the main Hawaiian Islands largely in State waters. Hawai'i has an economy that is very narrowly based on the tourist industry. In an effort to avoid the difficulties coming from such a vulnerable economy, significant efforts have been made toward economic diversification. The State has set up a range of programs looking to find new industries. New ocean industries figure prominently among these efforts as Hawai'i is surrounded by ocean. Naturally, among new ocean industries the potential for new marine mineral industries is significant given that Honolulu is the only full service port in the Central Pacific and Hawai'i is in the middle of the mineral belt. The port of Honolulu is now being actively used by mineral exploration vessels of several countries and with the current number of ship visits varying from 10-15 per year, this puts several million dollars a year into the State economy. It helps to fulfill the State's goal of dynamic growth in the ocean sector of the economy. Nonetheless, a major marine minerals industry, particularly one which would involve processing of minerals in Hawai'i, is controversial in a State whose main source of revenue is tourist expenditures based on the image of a pristine environment. In addition to the perceived threat to the hotel and fishing industry, is the whole highly emotional debate concerning preservation and development. To complicate the issue further, the major interest in developing a marine minerals is currently largely from Korea and China rather than from domestic U.S. industry. On the other side of the debate is the fact that the State's economy is hampered by many low paying jobs and a lack of technical jobs. This is further exacerbated by the fact that lower paying jobs are held disproportionately by people of Hawaiian and Pacific Island ancestry. Naturally, this leads over time to a certain amount of resentment. The higher paying technical lobs associated with a minerals processing industry could help to alleviate this problem.

Jan 1, 1996

By Wiebe Boomsma

INTRODUCTION Starting in February 2014, 19 partners from EU industry, research institutions and academia joined forces and formed the Blue Mining consortium. In the following four years, they have set out to work on the development of deep sea mining technology, looking into exploration, identification, economic assessment and vertical transport systems for the mining of seafloor massive sulphides and polymetallic nodules. In the beginning 2018 this research & development project has come to an end. The Blue Mining project was one of the first EU subsidised projects embracing the TRL system. This system describes a method of de-risking technology using a simple 9-step approach. This method requires experimental testing in laboratory and relevant environments to be able to reach the higher levels (TRL>5) This paper will discuss the progress in development of the vertical transport system, with a focus on the performed experimental work. This paper will discuss three topics: • Booster station technology • Riser dynamics • Vertical hydraulic transport process. BOOSTER STATION TECHNOLOGY Deep knowledge of transport processes is a prerequisite for a clog free vertical transport One of the key technologies in the VTS is the booster station. The centrifugal pump booster station concept is developed in Blue Mining, it consists of two centrifugal pumps and multiple valves, assembled in member-type frame. Deep sea conditions pose special requirements on all components due to the extreme pressures at large water depths. In the Blue Mining project a Deep Sea Special Motor has been developed and tested in laboratory and in the field. The motor is completely filled, lubricated and cooled using seawater due to its unique open structure, furthermore it does not require any lubricants minimizing the environmental pressure of the motor. The motor is first extensively tested in a laboratory, after these tests have been concluded successfully, the motor is shipped to Norway where it has been successfully tested for more than 100 hours at 425 meter water depth.

Jan 1, 2018

By Nobuyuki Okamoto

The 21-year long-term Japan-SOPAC Cooperative Deep-sea Mineral Resources Study Programme was completed in March 2006. The Programme, which commenced in 1985, has seen numerous marine research surveys being conducted within the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) of 12 SOPAC member countries (Figure 1). The various research and government institutions that have been closely involved in this longstanding Programme include: the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA); Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC) (formerly, the Metal Mining Agency of Japan, MMAJ) and relevant ministries of the participating Pacific Island governments.

Sep 24, 2006

By Richard H. T. Garnett

On the western continental shelf of southern Africa diamonds derived from onshore sources are concentrated in gravels within drowned terrestrial and marine geomorphological features. First discovered offshore in the late 1950's, they are known to exist for about 1400 km along the Namibian and South African coast in water depths of up to 200 m. Shallow water operations yielded 1.5 Mct during the decade ending 1970 when De Beers acquired a majority of the offshore leases and commenced a 15 year exploration program. Deeper water and the prevailing sea conditions required the development of new, unique, marine mining equipment. The first large scale mining production of 22 kct was achieved by De Beers in 1989 with an output of 22 kct. Annual marine output from all sources now exceeds 0.6 Mct worth some US.$ 170 M, and rising to 0.7-0.8 Mct for 1998. Exploration has also been taking place in the waters of West Africa, Australia, and Indonesia. Exploration is by means of high resolution geophysics followed by sampling using a variety of drills, airlifts and seabed-mounted machines which imitate the eventual mining process. Surveying is now probing depths of 500 m. Smaller scale mining by several junior companies has traditionally involved diving and airlift systems. Increasingly, however, they are adopting different and improved techniques which to date have been employed only by De Beers Marine as contractor to Namdeb. Marine exploration and unit mining costs are high compared to those applicable to alluvial deposits onshore. By 1996 the total development costs incurred by De Beers alone reportedly had exceeded US.$ 500 M. However, the financial rewards are commen-surate because of the higher recovered grades. The operations are not without risk for the total of nearly 10 large and medium scale production vessels deployed by various organisations. The greatest shortfalls are experienced in the estimated throughput, not the grade.

Jan 1, 1998

By Marlene Olivares Cruz

The particles that make up the deep-sea sediments have two main sources: 1) those that are created in situ from dissolved components and 2) those that are washed into the ocean in solid phases from the continents, atmosphere, space and interior of the Earth. Many particles as they sink through the water column reaches the seabed and are known as pelagic sediments with terrigenous, biogenic, authigenic, and cosmogenic components. Among the minerals found in the terrigenous fraction of pelagic sediments are quartz, clay minerals, feldspar, micas, ferromagnesians, and the biogenic fraction with remains of siliceous organisms, such as, radiolarian and diatoms. The chemical nature of marine sediments is controlled by the contribution of particulate matter derived from various sources with varying compositions for the fixing of elements during deposition and the compositional changes carried out within the sediments during diagenesis. In the last decade there have been several studies on the mineralogical composition of seabed sediments, suspended particulate materials and cores, together with paleontological and geochemical data are used for paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental reconstructions, analyze changes in sea level, stratigraphic correlations and identify past and present sources of sediment and terrigenous input pathways and to describe the current ocean mass (Martins et al., 2001, Oliveira et al., 1998). There is also a scientific and economic interest in the authigenic fraction of pelagic sediments formed from other materials for polymetallic nodules. The study of sediments associated with polymetallic nodules helps to know the genesis, evolution and occurrence of these deposits (De Koven et al., 2003, Dubinin et al., 2008).

Jan 1, 2011

By Takafumi Kasaya, Katz Suzuki, Yoshifumi Kawada

"INTRODUCTIONThe area beneath the seafloor preserves valuable resources that are inevitable to sustain our industrial society. Hydrocarbon resources such as petroleum and natural gases are one of the representative examples, which have been mined over a century (Brandt et al. 1998). In addition, submarine resources such as methane hydrates, ferromanganese crusts, and metal deposits of hydrothermal origin have long been known (Rona 2003; Kvenvolden and Rogers 2005), although methods of their mining have not yet been developed. All of these resources are distributed heterogeneously, and various exploration techniques have been developed and examined. The Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) is conducting a project on the development of exploration methods of these unexploited resources (Urabe et al. 2015; also see http://www.jamstec.go.jp/sip/images/pamphlet_e.pdf). The present study particularly focuses on our attempt on the developing an exploration method of hydrothermal ore deposits.Seafloor hydrothermal ore deposits are associated with submarine volcanoes of mid-ocean ridges, hot spots, and island arcs, and back arcs (Hannington et al. 2010). Active hydrothermal systems discharging high-temperature fluids can be detected above the seafloor as anomalies of temperature, turbidity, and acoustic impedance (e.g. Kasaya et al. 2015). However, because of the temperature limitation of mining (Boschen et al. 2013), the target of mining may be extinct and probably buried. To explore buried hydrothermal ore deposits from the vast seafloor area, geophysical surveys that can obtain information below the seafloor must be required. Several techniques including magnetic, electrical, and gravitational methods have been developed (e.g. Jones 1999; Kowalczyk 2008). Although physical properties taken by these methods are sensitive to the presence of hydrothermal deposits, difficulties are sometimes encountered. For example, anomalies of magnetic susceptibility and electrical conductivity, which characterize the presence of ore deposits, may be found above non-hydrothermal bodies such as volcanic bodies and reservoirs of hydrothermal fluids (e.g. Honsho et al. 2016). Thus, combinations of multiple methods must be used to specify the existence of buried hydrothermal ore deposits"

Jan 1, 2017

By David Heydon

NAUTILUS MINERALS is a leader in the commercial exploration for and evaluation of seafloor massive sulfide (?SMS?) deposits. Nautilus has exploration licences covering 15,000 sq km of seafloor in Papua New Guinea and is evaluating other areas in the Western Pacific. The Nautilus Western Pacific Gold-Copper project is an interesting case study of the interaction of the disciplines of Science, Engineering and Environmental Science to solve and attend to the challenges of a project without precedence. The Science books of geology and marine biology with respect to seafloor massive sulfides are still being written or at best are thin volumes with recognition still we know very little at this time. Science?s early discoveries and study of these mineral processes on the seafloor provided invaluable data from which to develop an exploration strategy and the genesis of Nautilus itself. The Engineering required for development of such deposits is a combination of yet to be tested ?theory and engineering principles? and adaptation of best practice from other fields such as oil/gas and telecommunication cable laying. The Environmental guidelines for exploring these deposits, let alone mining them, is at the moment still being debated by a panel of experts chosen by the International Seabed Authority.

Jan 1, 2005

By John Parianos, Simon Richards

SUMMARY The Clarion Clipperton Zone (CCZ) hosts the most valuable deposit of polymetallic nodules yet discovered. Understanding the geology of this deposit is key to its effective exploration and mining. Nautilus Minerals (via its subsidiary Tonga Offshore Mining Limited; TOML) has been progressing its understanding of the relationship between seafloor morphology/structure and nodule abundance/morphology, both locally (within its contract areas), and globally (across the CCZ and the span of its contract areas of almost 70% of the CCZ). We present the first results of a project with the aim of developing a method to quickly and accurately map seafloor morphology/structure (Tectonic Subcomponent scale) without the necessity for high resolution seafloor multibeam data. Furthermore, the results presented here will allow a first attempt in understanding the relationship between seafloor geomorphologically-defined zones and plate-scale tectonics of the CCZ and adjacent plate segments. INTRODUCTION A relationship between the type of geochemical active layer and nodule abundance/morphology has long been understood (ISA, 2010). Consideration of the range of differing nodule types found within, but especially between, the TOML contract areas allowed Parianos and Pomee (2017) to refine this relationship further via interpreted thickness and dynamism of the geochemically active layer. The scale of the deposit, both in terms of space and time is staggering (a 10-20 cm thick deposit, spanning almost 4500 km, varying within a circa 10 Ma period), but a segment wide geological map may one day prove to reflect controls on nodule formation and distribution.

Jan 1, 2018