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By Patrick R. Taylor

The synthesis of high-purity ultra-fine barium strontium titanate powders (BST: BaO6Sro.4TiO3) has been performed in a non-transferred are D.C. thermal plasma reactor. Slurries of aqueous solutions of dissolved barium and strontium nitrates and solid titanium dioxide powders were used as precursors. Oxygen and argon were used as carrier gases, and pure argon and combinations of argon and nitrogen were used as plasma gases. The plasma torch power was varied, as well as the oxygen flow rate and the total molar concentration of the precursors. A graphite plate was designed to protect the torch electrode and lower the level of impurities in the product. A thermochemical analysis of the Ba(NO3)2-Sr(NO3)2-TiO2-H2O-O2 system was performed to predict the conditions for the formation of BST and the feasibility of the reaction, The powders collected from the different sections of the reactor were characterized using Transmission and Scanning Electron Microscopy, X-Ray Diffraction, and ICP chemical analysis. The powders produced showed high conversion to BST, ultra-fine particle size (< 30 rim) and high purity, which makes this a potential process to produce ceramic materials for electronic devices.

Jan 1, 2003

By Torn H. Okabe

A fundamental study was conducted with the purpose of establishing an environmentally sound recovery process for recycling of valuable metals, by combining scraps containing such metals. As an example, direct extraction and recovery of neodymium (Nd) in magnet scraps was investigated by utilizing liquid metal as an extraction medium. It was found that liquid magnesium (Mg) is a suitable extraction medium and can extract Nd from iron alloys with high efficiency at around I 100 K. The newly developed extraction apparatus for Nd is a mechanically simple and static device without moving parts, where the Mg extraction medium circulates due to differences in the temperature inside the reaction vessel. This developed device can simultaneously accomplish continuous extraction of metal Nd from scraps, re-extraction of Mg from Mg-Nd alloy and the eventual recovery of pure Mg. As a result, metal Nd with 98 % purity was directly recovered from magnet scraps under certain conditions. It was also shown that the extraction agent Mg could be reused. The results of this investigation show the possibility of establishing a new process for the direct extraction of Nd in pure metal form without oxidization.

Jan 1, 2003

By V. I. Lakshmanan

Crown ethers are gaining importance in separation technology specifically for rare earth elements (REE, La to Lu plus Y) and precious metals (Au, Ag, Pt, Pd, Rh and Ir) due to their specific binding ability, metal complex stability and high extraction efficiency. The selectivity of crown ethers in extraction of these metals depends on different factors, including the cavity diameter and nature of a donor atom of the crown ether, size and charge of the metal ion, diluents and counter ion. Demand for strategic REE and precious metals are consistently increasing in the world while the separation of these metals is most challenging tasks. In this paper, the use of crown ethers in separation of REE and precious metals, reaction mechanisms and simplified process flowsheets will be elucidated. New reagents with high selectivity for the separation of these metals are further expected to produce high purity metals.

By A. V. Kuznetsov, R. I. Kamkin, V. M. Paretskiy, A. Y. Mamaev, V. P. Bystrov, A. S. Vernigora

"Vanukov furnace technology is an efficient, proven pyrometallurgical injection technology, used extensively in Russia and Kazakhstan for a number of different applications. The technology was most widely adopted for processing copper sulfide concentrates for matte in smelters in Norilsk, Revda (Russia) and Balkhash (Kazakhstan). The following applications also were developed and tested at industrial scale: treatment of sulfide lead and lead-zinc concentrates, laterite nickel ore, production of cast iron, treatment of antimony gold-containing ores, and municipal solid waste. In this paper, current experience of Vanukov furnace application to these technologies is described with a number of general development trends and new areas of application.IntroductionAt the present time, the Vanukov process, developed at the Moscow State Institute of Steel and Alloys at the Department of metallurgy of non-ferrous, rare and noble metals with collaboration with other research organizations, is a highly efficient technological solution for processing different kinds of raw materials. The process was invented by Professor Andrey Vladimirovich Vanukov, whose research work began in 1949. From 1956 to 1975 test runs of the technology were carried out at the smelters in Norilsk and Balkhash. In 1976 a pilot Vanukov furnace was built in Ryazan. Furnace designs was modified to suit the various test programs. A major objective of each experiment was the determination of optimal working conditions for processing different types of raw materials such as copper, copper-nickel, copper-zinc, lead or pyrite concentrates, and materials containing secondary lead and zinc. After the death of Andrey Vladimirovich Vanukov in 1986, this technology and furnaces based on the technology were named after him: “Vanukov process” and “Vanukov furnace”. Today, the following furnaces based on Vanukov technology are either working or were tested at semi-industrial scale: three in Norilsk, two in Revda (Russia) and two in Balkhash (Kazakhstan) for treatment of copper sulfide concentrates for matte, one in Orsk (Russia) for processing laterite nickel ore, one in the Buruktal plant (Russia) for antimony gold-containing ores for antimony oxide sublimates and gold-containing metallic antimony, and one in China for processing sulfide lead and lead-zinc concentrates for production of black lead and zinc-containing sublimates."

Jan 1, 2011

By H. K. Fouad, L. A. Guirguis

The starting mill strip solution· for this study· is an ammonium uranyl tricarbonate solution of pH 8.2 containing 20g uranium/liter, after a DEPA/TOPO extraction process from sulfuric acid leaching liquor. To the first portion of the concentrated acidified strip solution, hydrofuoric acid is added at 95°C in reduced condition to obtain uranium tetrafluoride. The second portion of the uranyl carbonate strip is subjected to a precipitation step by admixing 0.3 volume of non-solvent precipitating agent such as acetone per volume of uranium. ·Uranium oxide (U30 8) is obtained from this precipitate by calcination for half an hour at 800°C in air. The third portion of the strip solution is neutralized to a pH 6.5 with sulfuric acid to precipitate iron and other contaminants. The solution is further acidified to a pH 1.85 with continuous air bubbling to remove CO2, followed by H2Ch precipitation at pH 3.5 to obtain uranyl peroxide. The latter is reduced by stannous chloride to obtain uranium trioxide dihydrate UO3. 2H20. Identifications, characterization· and purity of these products are carried out by complete chemical analyses, Scanning electron microscope study, tap density determination, X-ray diffraction and infrared spectroscopic investigations. The achieved results agreed well with that of the published data for these nuclear grade purity products.

Jan 1, 2000

By H. Y. Sohn, Haitao Wang, Moo Eob Choi

"A novel ironmaking technology is under development at the University of Utah. This technology produces iron directly from iron ore concentrate by gas-solid suspension reduction. Hydrogen is the main reducing agent for high reactivity and for the elimination of carbon dioxide release in this ironmaking process. The direct use of concentrates allows bypassing the problematic pelletization/sintering and cokemaking steps in the steel industry.Intrinsic kinetics of the suspension reduction of magnetite concentrate particles by hydrogen has been measured. Experiments were carried out in the temperature range of 1423-1673 K, other experimental variable being hydrogen partial pressure, the amount of excess hydrogen and particle size. Under most experimental conditions, 95% reduction was attained within several seconds, which presents sufficiently rapid kinetics for a suspension reduction process. The reaction kinetics followed the nucleation-and-growth equation, and a rate equation that contains all the effects of the experimental parameters has been obtained.IntroductionWith the rapid increase in steel production, it is critical to control CO2 emissions which is the main greenhouse gas. It is inevitable to release a huge amount of CO2 when coke and/or coal are used as the main reducing agent in producing iron. As one of the methods to reduce the CO2 emission from ironmaking, the utilization of the gaseous reducing agents and fuels, including hydrogen, has been investigated [1-6]. The use of such gases forms the basis for a new ironmaking technology under development for producing iron directly from fine concentrates by a gas-solid suspension technology. This technology would reduce energy consumption by about 40% of the amount required by the blast furnace and drastically lower environmental pollution, especially CO2 emission, from the steel industry [4]. This is accomplished by adopting H2-based reductant and bypassing pelletization/sintering and cokemaking steps. Unlike other gas-based alternative ironmaking processes using shaft furnaces or fluidized-bed reactors, the suspension reduction technology is a high-intensity process because it will not suffer from the problems that other processes do when operated at high temperatures mainly from the sticking and fusion of particles."

Jan 1, 2011

By Luis Hoyos-Reyes, Jesus Gonzalez-Trejo, Adriana Cervantes-Clemente, Marco Gutierrez-Villegas, Manuel Palomar-Pardave, Cesar Real-Ramirez

Recent improvements on Peirce-Smith Converters (PSC) have combined numerical and physical simulations. However, most of the physical simulations have been carried out in cold-water models with only one tuyere. Several authors have proved that 2D numerical simulations do not reproduce the hydrodynamic behavior observed in physical simulations. On the other hand, most of the 3D numerical models have used a PSC thin slice with only one tuyere, but symmetric boundary conditions on the virtual walls have been imposed in order to reproduce the behavior of the whole converter. Therefore, there is no coincidence with the rigid walls of the physical models. The aim of this work is to quantify the effect of the virtual walls boundary conditions of a PSC thin slice and to determine the minimum number of tuyeres to characterize the fluid flow behavior of the entire converter.

Jan 1, 2009

By Xiaohui Li, Lianyun Liu, Hongmin Zhu, Chunfang Zi, Kai Huang, Hongjie Li

"The dissolution kinetics of steelmaking slag in pure water was studied, and the relative influential factors were investigated. The dissolution behavior of slag particles in water was well described by Noyes–Whitney equation, and for this kind of sparingly soluble rigid mineral this simple model was extensively applicable to describe their dissolution process. Experimental data were also obtained to confirm the significant promotion effect on the growth of some algae.1 . IntroductionIt has been found that the population of phytoplankton distributed in the ocean was significantly related to the concentration of some elements [1]. For example, silicon and iron were very low in the high-nitrate low-chlorophyll (HNLC) areas, which was the main factor limiting phytoplankton and other biomass growth in these open ocean surface water [7]. The silicon and iron-rich test also confirmed that the supply of these elements had the direct effect on the growth of phytoplankton processes at HNLC areas [2-8]. So in order to promote the growth of phytoplankton in these ocean areas, providing some of these elements into these ocean areas is a natural idea for choice. Steelmaking slag is a good resource for consideration because it usually contains silicon, iron, phosphorus and other elements that are necessary for the growth of phytoplankton [8-10].Haraguchi has proposed the following idea that [5-6], if steelmaking slag can be spread to the open ocean, the trace components like silicate, iron and phosphate as the indispensable nutrients for the growth of phytoplankton, will be leached into the sea water, not only promoting the growth of phytoplankton, but also making good use of these huge amount of steelmaking slag produced every year. Based on this idea, they have carried out studies in recent years and they found that silicon and iron in the slag could be extracted into seawater effectively and play a positive role in the growth process of many algae. About the dissolution of the steelmaking slag, the Japanese scholars' research work mainly focused on the thermodynamic analysis of its dissolution possibility, and in the process of dissolution they tried to adjust the pH value of the seawater by continuously adding hydrochloric acid, which was deviated from the natural conditions of dissolution, and so the laws drawn under these special conditions can not give the identical guide to the practical application. Therefore, it is quite necessary to investigate the dissolution behavior of the steelmaking slag in the seawater at the normal pH range without adjustment to simulate the dissolution possibility under the natural conditions. In the present study, the silicon extraction behavior from the steelmaking slag was investigated and the dissolution kinetics in this process was also discussed in detail. Further studies were also performed here to evaluate the promotion of steelmaking slag on the growth of algae."

Jan 1, 2011

By Jie Ma, Shun-Li Zhao, Jian Zhao, Jie-Yu Zhang

"Microstructural morphology evolution of Ni-45wt.%Mo droplets during rapid solidification process was investigated using an advanced modified 3D cellular automaton-finite element(CAFE) model by CALCOSOFT software. The model was modified by User-defined functions (UDFs) and validated with experimental solidification microstructural morphology of Ni-45wt.%Mo droplets available in the literature. Then, the influences of convection heat transfer coefficient, superheat of the alloy droplets and droplets size were investigated during the rapid solidification process. The predictions show that microstructural morphology is obviously sensitive to convection heat transfer coefficient and droplet size. With the decrease of convection heat transfer coefficient, the grain density decreases. In addition, the decrease of the droplet size could obtain refined microstructure. However, decrease the superheat ofNi-45wt.%Mo droplets has little effect on microstructural morphology.IntroductionFor several decades, much attention has been paid to undercooled alloy droplets of rapid solidification process for which can obtain refined microstructure, decreased microsegregation and extended solubility of alloying elements [1-3]. Extensive prior work shows that solidification of droplets plays an essential role in advanced material properties [ 4]. Consequently, it is very important to investigate the microstructural morphology evolution, especially for dendrite growth during non-equilibrium solidification process, for dendrite growth reflected the kinetics of the crystal growth process."

Jan 1, 2013

By Junji Shibata

Zeolite synthesized from coal fly ash has many intelligent properties such as cation exchange, adsorption, catalyst and so on. The suitable use of the zeolite, however, is not established in an actual commercial scale yet. From the viewpoints of an effective usage of coal fly ash and the zeolite obtained from coal fly ash, we propose the new concept for environmentally friendly usage of zeolite, in which coal fly ash safely returns to the soil with growing plants and purifying wastewater. This method can make great contribution to recycle of coal fly ash, to purification of high nutritious water and to tree planting.

Jan 1, 2002

By Hongmin Zhu, Guihua Wang, Xiangsheng Wang

"The anode process of carbon electrode in fluoride melt was studied by voltammetry and chronoamperometry. Anode gases were analyzed by gas chromatography on-line during controlled-potential electrolysis. Two peaks were observed on the cyclic voltammograms. According to the results of gas chromatography, the first peak was corresponded to the discharge of residual oxide ions, with the formation of CO and CO2. Discharge of fluoride ions occurred at 4.1 V vs. Li+/Li, and leading to the anode effect. With the occurrence of anode effect, small amount of CF4 was detected. As the potential reached 4.5 V, CF4 and C2F6 gas evolution occurred, and the current increased to form the second peak.1.IntroductionIn the primary production of Aluminum and some rare earth metals like neodymium, a departure from normal cell operation known as anode effect results in the generation of perfluorocarbons (PFCs), which have high global warming potentials [1]. Owing to the pressure of environmental protection, considerable research has been carried out to clarify the mechanism of anode effect and PFC generation of industry and laboratory cells in the aluminum electrolysis system [2-9]. The common result on PFC generation is that the PFCs are emitted from Hall-Heroult cells only when they are on anode effect. In this article, we selected LiF, the main electrolyte for the neodymium electrolysis [10-11], to perform further investigation on the underlying kinetics of PFC generation and the nature of the reactions at the electrode.2. ExperimentalAll experiments were carried out in an alumina tube reactor, which was filled with high purity helium atmosphere. Spectrographic graphite crucibles were used, which played the dual role of molten fluoride container and the counter electrode. Lithium fluoride was analytical grade. The experiments were carried out at 900 °C."

Jan 1, 2011

By S. Y. Tan

As CMOS devices are scaled down into nano-region, SiO2 dielectric is approaching its physical and electrical limits. High-k material has been investigated widely in recent years, and gate oxide take place growth oxide with Hf-based below 45nm gate length technology node has been shown. The phenomenon of interfacial property between bulk silicon and gate dielectric materials (HfO2 and HfSiO) was focused. A comparison of capacitance-voltage (C-V) characteristic of gate insulator was presented. Furthermore, the electrical property and thermal stability of high-k dielectric materials at various post deposit anneal (PDA) temperatures were established. The X-Ray diffraction technique was (XRD) utilized to analyze crystallization of the thin films, and the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was applied for surface chemical bounding energy to identify the silicon and dielectric layers. Results show that HfSiO films have exhibited a superior performance on both thermal stability and electrical performance.

Jan 1, 2009

By Sijun Li, Bingyu Zhang, Haitao Zhou, Zhendong Zhang, Guofei Si, Xianghua Liu

"Hot compression test of Nb microalloyed coiled tubing steel is performed on Gleeble3500 at 1123K—1373K and strain rate from 0.001 to 5s-1. It is found that flow softening occurs and the flow curves exhibit a peak with a characteristic of dynamic recrystallization (DRX) and change with temperature and strain rate significantly. The peak stress and peak strain are dependent on the Zener-Hollomon relationship with activation energy of 390 KJ/mol. On the basis of Avrami equation and the Zener-Hollomon parameter, it is obtained that the dynamic recrystallization kinetics equation with which the calculated and measured recrystallization fraction is very close. On the results of hot compression test, the Nb microalloyed coiled tubing steel is rolled by Thermo-Mechanical-Control-Processing (TMCP), and it is obtained that the yield strength and tensile strength of Nb microalloyed coiled tubing steel are 565MPa and 685MPa respectively, and the elongation percentage is 30.1%.IntroductionCoiled tubing is widely used in oil field for well logging, well completion, drilling, work over and other operation in various fields to solve a number of conventional operating techniques problem which are difficult resolved, and it plays a more and more important part in exploration and production at oil field. [1] It will improve the efficiency of exploration and exploitation, studying, developing and using coiled tubing technology. Therefore, the development of domestic coiled tubing materials and manufacturing technology are great significance. It is well known that Coiled tubing has relatively poor working conditions and complex force state. So, the coiled tubing needs satisfier a kind of high strength, high plasticity, and corrosion resistant under complex oil gas condition. As the coiled tubing technology developed, the level of the coiled tubing steel is from CT55 originally to CT90 and CT100, and the corresponding tensile strength is 483MPa-758MPa. [2, 3]"

Jan 1, 2012

By André L. B. Bittencourt

The copper content in the waste slag represents the greatest loss in the process of Caraíba Metais&apos; Smelter. By identifying the variables responsible for copper stabilization in the slag, a minimization on these losses is expected, producing a granulated waste slag with a copper content lower than 0.7%. Statistics resourses such as control charts, Pareto&apos;s diagram and correlations curves were applied for the data obtained in the first semester of 1992. The magnetite and the calcium oxide contents in the slag of the Flash Smelter Furnace were most prominent variables. Some operational changes introduced during and after this investigation have shown good results.

Jan 1, 1994

By K. C. Liddell, B. Dou

"In producing multilayer films for magnetic data storage applications, the interfacial roughness must be controlled in order to obtain high quality materials with reproducible properties. The present understanding of the effect of roughness on multilayer properties such as magnetoresistance is sketchy, particularly for electrodeposited films. In this study, quantitative atomic force microscopy was used to characterize surface morphology before and after Ni films of varying thickness were deposited on Cu cathodes. A multinuclear multilayer growth mechanism is supported by both the deposition conditions and the AFM images, and a multinuclear multilayer model gave a satisfactory fit to measurements of the density of peaks on ultrathin Ni films between 0 and 8 nm thick.Alloys consisting of alternating ferro-and paramagnetic layers have begun to replace Permalloy in the sensing elements of magnetic hard drives. The operating principle of the new read heads is giant magnetoresistance (GMR), and they are smaller and more sensitive than previous inductive heads (1). Experimental studies on sputtered multilayers have emphasized the role of layer thickness and interlayer roughness in determining the presence and size of the GMR effect (e.g., 2,3,4,5,6). However, roughness in electrodeposited multilayers has rarely been measured, even though read heads are likely to continue to be made by this process for some time to come. Cu/Ni can be considered a model system for understanding processing-microstructure-property relationships in electrodeposited multilayers and is the most widely investigated of all such systems (e.g., 7,8,9,10,11,12). Nevertheless, the roughness of the interfaces in Cu/Ni electrodeposits has not been systematically characterized by quantitative techniques, and in all studies reported so far, the total deposit thicknesses were considerably greater than the 10 nm needed for most sensor applications (1). The thinnest such films were about 50 nm (7)."

Jan 1, 1998

By H. Conrad, K. Jung

"The effect of an external electric field E=5(+) kV/cm applied during the solution heat treatment at 500°-550°C of three commercial Al-Mg-Si alloys (AA6061, AA6022 and AA61l1) on the asquenched resistivity Pw and hardness H.,NULL, w was investigated. It was found that the field gave a significant increase in Pw and in Hv,w, for AA6022 and AA6111, but had no clear effect on AA6061. Thermodynamic analysis gave that the effect of the field on AA6022 and AA6111 was to reduce both the enthalpy ?H, and entropy ?H, of solution. Considering the chemical composition of the three alloys it appears that the influence of the field may depend on the amount of Cu plus excess Si present in the alloy.IntroductionKlypin and Soloviev [1, 2] were the first to report that the application of an external electric field during solution heat treatment (SHT) of Al alloys gave an increase in the as-quenched resistivity and hardness. They attributed these effects of the field to an increase in solubility of the alloying constituents during the SHT. More recently Liu and coworkers [3, 4] also reported an increase in the as-quenched resistivity of Al-Li alloys with application of an electric field during SHT. Further, the present authors [5] found that the application of an electric field during the SHT of the commercial Al-Mg-Si alloys AA6022 and AA61i1 increased their as-quenched resistivity and hardness. Their thermodynamic analysis of the results indicated that the field decreased both the enthalpy ?H, and entropy ?S, of solution."

Jan 1, 2004

By B. Sereda

As it is known the creation and development of new titanic alloys has been problematic up to now. They can be used in aircraft and vehicle construction, shipbuilding and as materials for keeping static loadings in high-temperature environments. In this work the synthesis of various titan aluminides is investigated. Mathematical model of structurization process was done. On the base of retrieved model the mechanisms of structurization in systems Ti + Al and Ti + 3Al was determined. Experimental researches were done at two different modes: burning and thermal spontaneous ignition. The method of retrieving compacted products combusted in SHS conditions (SHS-compacting) was used to gain these intermetallic compounds. The physical and thermal characteristics of technological process and their influence on structurization, homogeneity of structure and porosity of titan aluminides have been simulated and researched. It is established that the SHS-compactizing technology is fully capable of supervising the process of structurizations with the whole complex of advantages and can be applied for receiving qualitative titan aluminides with the set of chemical-physical properties.

Jan 1, 2010

By Steve Johnston, Mowafak Al-Jassim, Fei Yan, Omar Sidelkheir, Alain Blosse, Katherine Zaunbrecher

"Imaging techniques are applied to multi-crystalline silicon wafers and solar cells throughout the production process. Photoluminescence imaging, both band-to-band and defect-band, is used to characterize defects and wafer quality at all process steps. These steps include bricks sawn from ingots, wafer sawing, cleaning and texturing, emitter diffusion, edge isolation and glass removal, anti-reflective coating/passivation, and metallization of finished cells. Bricks, wafers, and cells can be imaged at a rate commensurate with in-line measurement, giving spatial information to characterize quality and defect content. Photoluminescence images on silicon bricks can be correlated to lifetime measured by photoconductive decay and could be used for high-resolution characterization of material before wafers are cut. The defect areas in as-cut wafers are compared to imaging results from electroluminescence and lock-in thermography, and cell parameters of near-neighbor finished cells, showing correlations to efficiency, open-circuit voltage, and short-circuit current.IntroductionImaging techniques can rapidly characterize material quality and defect density. Photoluminescence (PL) imaging can be applied to silicon from the brick level to all wafer process steps [1-8]. At the brick level, material thickness allows for measurement and correlation to lifetime where surface recombination effects are minimized [6, 7]. At the as-cut wafer level where thin unpassivated wafers prevent accurate lifetime assessment due to surfaces, defects can still be categorized and quantified to predict finished cell performance [3-5]. Defect regions can be identified by recombination-limited band-to-band PL or by defect-band emission [9-12]."

Jan 1, 2012

By C. Koopman

During the production of phosphoric acid from phosphate ore and sulfuric acid, large amounts of calcium sulfate are formed, in which impurities from the feedstock are incorporated. To use the calcium sulfate in, for example, the building industry, a lower concentration of impurities is desired. Mercury, copper, lead, and cadmium were extracted from clear industrial recrystallization acid (0.8-3.9 mol/kg H3PO4, 0.2-0:5 mol/kg H2SO4) by supported solvent extraction with the extracting agent Cyanex 302 in kerosene in a transverse flow hollow fiber module. The permeability for the mercury ion was 1.4.10-6 m/s, whereas that for the copper ion was calculated to be 1.5.10 m/s. Cadmium, lead, and copper were extracted during the recrystallization of calcium sulfate hemihydrate to dihydrate, an existing step within the ,phosphoric acid production process, by solvent extraction with the same extracting agent. The concentrations of cadmium and zinc in the newly formed calcium sulfate were proven to be decreased. Unfortunately, concentrations of mercury and lead were too low for analysis.

Jan 1, 1999

By Yasuo Ojima

The mainstream of copper smelting processes in the world today is a combination of Outokumpu type Flash smelting and PS (Pierse Smith) converting process. Presently it can be estimated that about 50% of the worldwide copper production is produced by the Flash smelting process and 80% by the PS converting process. PS converting process due to its operational flexibility and despite its batch character of operation has been widely used in many smelters for more than 100 years. However, an environmental issue has been pointed out related to this process because of the difficulty of handling the fugitive gases. Recently several copper smelters in the world have been newly construeted and others have executed major modification and modernization. The continuous converting process has been applied in many of them instead of PS converting process. This paper compares PS to the emerging continuous converting process and makes a prospect of the future of the copper converting process.

Jan 1, 2003