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By D Osborne

Current mineral extraction and valorisation activities still have a strong focus on the ‘delivered product(s)’ which might be a bulk commodity such as metallurgical coal, hematite, bauxite, etc., and mineral concentrates such as metal sulphides, oxides, and carbonates; precious metals, such as gold, silver and PGMs, REEs or battery metals; halogen salt forming elements; or industrial minerals, which are non-metals including crushed rock, sand, and gravel etc. With the current focus on tailings disposal the pushback has been to seek alternatives to the currently ‘conventional’ disposal method via increasingly higher risk tailings settling facilities (TSFs) with a changing focus towards ‘dry disposal’. Whichever option is selected, the alarming trend is the increasing cost and ESG impacts. An emerging approach is to pose a focusing question ‘Is there anything else passing into the tailings stream and/or disposable waste streams which could be recovered and pass into the product revenue stream? All of the above ‘primary’ process streams offer opportunities for increasing recovery and offsetting some of the disposal costs. Some secondary opportunities are already being pursued, such as REEs and battery metals from base metals deposits, but other opportunities are still being overlooked, such as building materials and soil conditioning pellets. These potential ‘new’ product streams can also utilise other mining and domestic wastes such as smelting slags, glass waste, plastic waste etc. This paper will address these opportunities and provide examples including process approach, economics and some of the current barriers that exist, which are holding back progress on such initiatives.

Sep 1, 2024

By H Utama, R Heryadi

PT Indo Muro Kencana (PT IMK) is a surface gold and silver mine located in Mt. Muro area, Central Kalimantan province, Indonesia. The mining operations of multiple open pits using combination of excavator and haul truck is operated. This operation is performed in two shifts in a day. The articulated dump truck (ADT) with capacity of 40 t and 60 t deliver ore to the mineral processing plant and discard waste material to the waste dump area. Overall, PT IMK’s mining operation department is consisting of two sections, namely mining operation section and drill and blast section. Firstly, mine operation section is responsible to manage loading, hauling, pit service (mine dewatering, earthwork, road maintenance) and mine operation engineering. Secondly, drill and blast section is in charge to manage drilling and blasting (blast engineering, blasting operation, explosive permit and magazine or explosive storage). Additionally, conventional blasting method (ore-waste blasting) with non-electric initiation system is used and sleep blasting is undertaken as bulk explosive is buried for maximum two days. The first purpose of this paper is to elucidate about role of mining engineer in mining operation department (mining operation engineer and D&B engineer). At this point, mining operation engineering practice (fleet management system, production control and mining manpower management) and also blasting daily practice will be elucidated. Daily blasting practice is consisting of surface blast design, explosive engineering, sleep blast practice and the concept of scaled depth of burial to ensure a safe work environment in blasting activity. Next, the second purpose of this paper is to explore workforce evolution and future skills for mining engineer in surface mining operation. Furthermore, strategy to advance future skills such as mining continuous improvement program, training and skills development for mining engineer (mining operation engineer and D&B engineer) in order to develop their skills is also discussed. It is expected that in the future, these future mining leaders will become new mining leader, for instance mining superintendents, D&B superintendents and mining managers. In conclusion, it is clear that awareness about workforce evolution, professional development, training, skills development, mining economics awareness and mining continuous improvement program are essentially required as professional development for mining engineer (mining operation engineer and D&B engineer), in order to be commercially competitive in their future career and in order to be adapted with future workforce evolution in mining.

Sep 1, 2024

By S Warden, T Neville, P Leckie

At its simplest, the classification and characterisation of an orebody is a matter of Where, What and When. Where and with what spatial resolution are measurements taken, What properties are measured, and When are the data acquired, processed, and delivered to create the most value. This paper delves into how existing and near-term advances in measurement technologies, field automation, and whole-system-digitisation are combining to open new routes for mine and exploration productivity improvement. Commencing when the initial exploration hole is dug, the advancement in deployment of survey technology—from expert-operated, to driller-operated, to driller-integrated—is used to demonstrate a template for adoption of higher technology measurements. We then introduce and discuss the multi-use measurement as offering outsized returns from a single measurement run, highlighting two new technologies that acquire rock strength while drilling and downhole assay data as examples. For rock strength, we highlight a novel approach to determining Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS) while drilling, its relationship to and advantages over Mechanical Specific Energy (MSE), and how it offers utility to multiple downstream processes. For downhole assay, we detail how a back-tophysics approach to Pulsed Fast and Thermal Neutron Activation (PFTNA) analysis offers significant advantages over other measurement methods and earlier implementations of PFTNA, generating a rich data set that can significantly extend and improve the information on which mining decisions are made. Finally, we discuss the possibilities enabled via optimising data delivery, collection, and curation— noting a fundamental limitation of historical systems and exploring the possibilities that will be unlocked by soon-to-market solutions that better enable Orebody Characterisation data to (virtually) move in space and time with rock material post-blasting. Ultimately, the value of optimising the Where, What, and When from point of measurement to the moment it generates maximum value will create greater life-of-asset production for a lower cost and energy input.

Sep 1, 2024

By S Sullivan

The key skills for a competent geologist are observation, documentation, analytical thought and the ability to communicate. These attributes have served the geological world for the past two centuries since the field of geology was separated out from natural philosophy. The understanding of the structural setting, lithologies, alteration and 3D distribution of the target mineral species are essential precursors to resource evaluation and potential economic extraction. The advent of artificial intelligence and machine learning has matured to the point where observation by dedicated sensors and analysis by customised AI algorithms can replace manual processes and deliver credible results. In combination with analytical data such as assays, various sensors now collect physical properties of rocks which are used as proxies for mineral identification and rock mass classification. These sensors include X-ray and infra-red spectra, magnetic susceptibility, gravity/density, EH/pH measurements, conductivity, colourimetric readings, porosity, fracturing and fracture intensity. Analysis using machine learning techniques trained using known data sets can determine rock type classification, rock density, quantification of grade/quality attributes, mineral alteration, weathering and geotechnical attributes such as rock quality. This type of data relies on calibration and quality control of a variety of different types of electronic hardware. The resulting data is non-additive, has error ranges and will be suitable for consumption by fast AI methods providing probabilistic analysis. A second stage could include geometallurgical constraints to provide an ‘extractability index’, which is of more interest to miners than pure geotyping. Using resultant interpreted geological criteria, 3D domain models with spatial attributes will be built.

Sep 1, 2024

By V Salamakha, K Tang, G Si, J Oh, X Wu, Z Yu

The development of machine learning (ML) algorithms has led to promising advances in lithology classification from geophysical logs, which is indispensable in various underground engineering applications. Due to the resolution and availability of logging data, ML models can recognise lithology change in a definitive form at a fine scale (0.01 m). While the results from previous models indicated promising performance in the classification, the robust capability of generalising lithology prediction to unseen data may not be true for those models due to: (1) data bias caused by borehole selections, and (2) logging data mismatches among boreholes. To this end, this paper aims to investigate the generalisability of ML models and seek potential improvements. Four ML models were selected to be trained on single reference boreholes to test the other (as unseen) in the same region, which includes Support Vector Classifier (SVC), Random Forest (RF), eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) and Residual Neural Network (ResNet10). The data set involves 11 boreholes from a coalmine in north-western Bowen Basin (Queensland, Australia): density, gamma ray, neutron, and sonic logs are selected as inputs. Additionally, a data adaptation method is applied for better generalisability. The results show that there is an accuracy trade-off between the same borehole and unseen boreholes across the models. It also indicates a 16–43 per cent reduction in model performance when generalising the predictions (in marco-F1 score), while the adapted data sets can contribute to a around 12 per cent improvement. This study provides a fundamental understanding of the model generalisability when using a single borehole, essential for further correlating boreholes for regional lithology classification; the adaptation method can improve the generalised accuracy, and reduces the labour to label lithology, which facilitates the identification of gas storage mechanisms, geological/geophysical modelling, and stratigraphic analysis.

Sep 1, 2024

By Mary Nelima Ondiaka, Oladunni Oyelola Alabi, Fatai Olufemi Aramide, Francis Gitau, Talabi Henry Kayode

Iron ore is essential in steelmaking but high-grade ores have diminished, making it necessary to turn to low-grade ores, which need further beneficiation to upgrade the iron content. Biobeneficiation techniques such as bioleaching, bioflotation and bioflocculation have proven successful in iron ore processing. Consequently, these methods have emerged as sustainable alternatives to conventional beneficiation. The biobeneficiation processes occur in mild conditions using bioreagents and biosurfactants derived from microbes, and offer a reduction of chemicals used in processing. This potentially offers methods that are relatively energy efficient, cost effective and environmentally friendly while tackling the constraints of dwindling high-grade iron ore resources.

Sep 1, 2024

By Mahmud Esad Uluer, Aaron Noble

Respirable coal mine dust (RCMD) is one of the biggest occupational health hazards for underground coal miners. Coal extraction is a main source of RCMD. To prevent challenges related to RCMD from developing, it is vitally important to limit airborne RCMD and stay within the regulatory limitations for mine operators. The flooded-bed dust scrubber (FBS), mounted on a continuous miner, is one of the most widely used dust mitigation technologies in room-and-pillar mining, but it is limited by technical challenges, the most notably being the potential to clog. In this study, the impact of mesh design and surface modification on system efficiency is examined using different vibrating, liquid-coated, stainlesssteel mesh panels in a laboratory-scale FBS.

Sep 1, 2024

By Mustafa Kumral, Mehmet Balci

Strategic mine planning focuses on cutoff grade selection, capacity planning and block sequencing. Despite significant knowledge accumulated, potential value can be added to mineral sourcing by addressing various aspects. A case study on a metallic deposit with a lognormal grade distribution examines if grade/metal distribution influences cutoff grade selection. Six data sets with different shape and scale factors, but the same ore tonnage and metal quantity, are analyzed. Results indicate deposits with lower shape and scale factors are more sensitive to metal price and discount rate changes. The study also investigates the effect of economies of scale (EoS) on project value, focusing on the ratio of variable cost to total cost (capacity factor). Two regression analyses are conducted for optimal capacity planning and cutoff grade selection. The first shows capacity planning is highly sensitive to the EoS of mining and mineral-processing costs, with grade variability and metal distribution being negligible. In the second analysis, grade variability and EoS of mineral processing costs are vital for cutoff grade selection.

Sep 1, 2024

By Sara Swiokla Korsikas, Toren Olson, Amado Guzman, Yuri O. Zepeda

Ore agglomeration has been used as part of the heap leaching process for the last 40 years. However, industrial experience shows that the lack of a universal agglomeration standard has limited the benefits of this otherwise valuable unit process. The more complex the ore in terms of the nature and relative abundance of fines (particle size smaller than 74 μm), the more important that the agglomeration product satisfies some minimal requirements. This paper presents an agglomeration scale that identifies the quality standards for agglomerates and documents the resulting mechanical, physical and hydraulic (hydrodynamic) behavior associated with each level on the agglomeration scale. The hydrodynamic properties of an agglomeration product are critical for the proper design of a leaching operation and, as shown in this paper, can be used to select the optimal pretreatment method for a given ore sample. Agglomeration as a unit process not only allows better conditioning of the hydrodynamic behavior of the ore but also creates an opportunity for optimized delivery of reagents to kickstart the leaching process, which may ultimately improve the economic performance of leaching. Industrial case data are used to demonstrate the shortfalls associated with low-quality agglomeration and the benefits of improved agglomeration, which range from enhanced porous structure (better percolation and drainage characteristics) to better metallurgical response (faster kinetics and higher metal recovery). Proper agglomeration has been used to render otherwise untreatable ores into valuable leaching resources.

Sep 1, 2024

By C. Allen, H. Zhang, L. Falk

Shock loss occurs when there is a change in the area of a drift or airflow direction. These shock losses accumulate throughout the ventilation system and will increase the mine resistance as underground development deepens or becomes more complex. Hence, shock losses should be carefully considered when establishing the resistance through a series of branches as they can be a significant contributor to the estimated mine resistance. Using computer software to simulate a ventilation system is common but applying reasonable shock loss factors in the software is not a simple or direct process. Determining shock loss values includes the consideration of historical measurements, application of factors and formulas from literature based on the geometry and complexity of junctions, and the geometry variation at different locations. For example, the shock loss at the bottom of a ventilation raise can consist of a 90° bend and a sudden area change. This paper presents an approach for estimating shock loss factors near raise junctions using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Current and future work will also be compared with field measurements. Results from this approach are compared with software defaults as well as classical techniques in published literature and standards.

Sep 1, 2024

By J Wen, P Hou, W Yu, M Hu, Z Jiang, C Bai

Vanadium titano-magnetite (VTM) is one of the important iron ore resources in the world. High viscosity and low fluidity are the basic characteristics of hot metal containing vanadium and titanium during the ironmaking process. Clarifying the influencing mechanism of the melt viscosity would be a significant issue for the high efficiency smelting of VTM. In this paper, a self-developed melt viscometer based on the principle of torsional vibration theory was employed to measure the viscosity of hot metal accurately. Simultaneously, the thermodynamic calculations and some modern detection methods were also used to investigate the precipitation behaviour of high-melting-point phases in hot metal containing vanadium and titanium. The measuring results show that the viscosity of molten iron gradually increases with the increase of titanium content when the mass fraction of titanium is between 0.09 wt per cent – 0.50 wt per cent. Meanwhile, the viscosity of the hot metal was affected significantly by the vanadium content. When the vanadium mass fraction was higher than 0.30 wt per cent, the viscosity of hot metal increased sharply, which will have a serious impact on the fluidity of the hot metal. Furthermore, it was revealed by thermodynamic calculations that an increase in titanium and vanadium content would result in the precipitation of high melting point phases such as TiC, TiN, VC, and VN in the molten iron, ultimately resulting in a decrease in its fluidity. Meanwhile, it was confirmed by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) observation that the precipitates in the hot metal were compounds consisting of V, Ti, C, and N elements, which agrees well with the thermodynamic analysis results.

Aug 21, 2024

By H Aoki, A Nakayama, K Morita, S Yamada

The thermal conductivity of mold flux is crucial for optimising the productivity and quality of steels. This study investigates the thermal conductivity of molten oxides, including CaO-BO1.5-AlO1.5 (CBA), CaO-BO1.5-AlO1.5-SiO2 (CBAS), and CaO-MgO-BO1.5-AlO1.5 (CMBA) melts, using a hot wire method. Additionally, their structure is examined using Raman spectrometry and magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (MAS-NMR) to explore their relationship. Furthermore, first-principles calculations are employed to assess the covalency of each bond in the melts for a more quantitative analysis of their relationship. The study confirms that an increase in the CaO concentration of the CaO-BO1.5-AlO1.5 melts reduces the amount of bridging oxygen and consequently decreases thermal conductivity. The covalency of the B[4]-O bond is highest, especially when the second-nearestneighbour Al atoms transition from Al[6] to Al[4], forming the AlB3O7 structure with B[4]. The relationship between thermal conductivity and the structure of CaO-BO1.5-AlO1.5-SiO2 melts can be quantitatively assessed using the degree of polymerisation of the network structure and the variation of covalency as indicators. Furthermore, replacing CaO with MgO in the CaO-MgO-BO1.5-AlO1.5 melts reveals a mixed alkaline earth effect on thermal conductivity.

Aug 21, 2024

By M A. Rhamdhani, R Z. Mukhlis

Removing the ledge formation in the Hall-Heroult cell during the electrolysis process may significantly reduce the energy requirement of the aluminium production process. In the absence of the ledge, however, the sidewall-material types become heavily restricted since the cryolite is very corrosive at the electrolysis temperatures. This paper study the corrosion behaviour of sintered nickel ferrite, nickel aluminate, and magnesium aluminate refractories (as possible candidates for sidewall material) in molten aluminium and cryolite melts with various alumina content at 980°C. Immersion tests of refractories with various porosity were conducted to assess the suitability of the refractories in the corrosive environment of the electrolysis cells. Microstructural change of the refractory after immersion were analysed using secondary scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Sampling of the melts were taken at 0, 10 min, 30 min, and each hour up to 6 hrs, and subsequently analysed by Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) spectroscopy. Based on the projected concentration of the refractories constituents in the melts, it was predicted that the corrosion rate of NiFe2O4, NiAl2O4 and MgAl2O4 in cryolite with 11 wt per cent Al2O3 were 461 × 103, 1.03 × 103, and 798 × 103 cm/a, respectively. Much lower corrosion rate of 2.3 cm/a for NiFe2O4, 2.6 cm/a for NiAl2O4 and 0.3 cm/a for MgAl2O4 were predicted if the refractories in contact with aluminium melts. Erosion played an important role in the corrosion as the concentration of the refractory constituents in the melts were beyond its solubility limit. It is therefore crucial to increase the densities of the refractory and improve its wetting characteristics.

Aug 21, 2024

By K Saito, M Hasegawa

In steelmaking processes, it is known that P2O5 in dephosphorisation slags often exists in solid solutions between Ca2SiO4 and Ca3P2O8, <C2S-C3P>SS, and thus the solid solutions play an important role in the dephosphorisation reaction. Hence, the knowledge of thermochemical properties, ie phase relations and activities of components, in slags containing <C2S-C3P>SS are necessary for the effective removal of phosphorus from hot metal. In this study, the P2O5 activities in <C2S-C3P>SS were measured through the gas equilibrium method. In the present experiment, oxide samples were equilibrated with Cu-P liquid alloys at 1573 K under a stream of Ar + H2 + H2O or Ar + H2 + CO2 gas mixture in which oxygen potential was fixed and then equilibrium phosphorus concentrations in the Cu-P alloys, [mass%P]Cu, were analysed with ICP-OES.

Aug 21, 2024

By M Ranjan, C R. Borra, P Palai, P P. Sahoo

Change in mould slag composition during casting of medium alloy steel is caused by the redox reaction between molten steel and mould flux. Mould flux generally contains a certain amount of SiO2, but elements such as Al, Mn and Ti in high/medium alloy steels reduce SiO2 in the mould flux, causing remarkable changes in the composition of the mould slag. As a result, the properties of the mould slag change greatly as continuous casting proceeds. This causes casting instability, process abnormality and casting defects. Effect of Ti as an alloying element in steel on mould slag is studied extensively through high temperature laboratory measurements and plant measurements. TiO2 gets picked up by the mould slag up to 3 per cent during casting a steel grade containing 0.1 per cent Ti. This changes the mould slag composition and results in decreasing the slag viscosity by up to 10 per cent and decreases slag break temperature by 30–40°C.

Aug 21, 2024

By R G. Reddy, A Yahya

The sulfur distribution ratio (Ls) is an expression of the amount of sulfur in slag to the amount of sulfur in molten metal. The sulfide capacities calculated from Reddy-Blander (RB) model were used to calculate the sulfur distribution ratio (Ls). A new Reddy model for sulfur distribution ratio (Ls) was developed for modelling Ls for ironmaking, steelmaking, and secondary steelmaking conditions. Besides calcium oxide, the major component in the ladle furnace (LF) slags is alumina. The Ls was calculated for typical LF slags as a function of temperature and composition. The model calculated Ls values are in good agreement with the experimental and industrial slags data. The extremely low oxygen potential in these furnaces after fully-killed steel is favourable for desulfurisation. For any given slag’s composition and temperature, its sulfide capacity can be calculated a priori. The equilibrium sulfur distribution ratio between this slag and liquid metal in a particular vessel can also be calculated a priori. The Ls for ladle furnace (LF) slags is about twice those for blast furnaces (BF) slags and ten times those of basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slags. The desulfurisation of pig iron in BF and desulfurisation of steel in LF during secondary steelmaking are recommended. Steel desulfurisation in steelmaking furnaces is not effective. Since the model used to calculate the sulfur distribution ratio (Ls) is a priori, it is a useful tool for the iron and steel makers in improving the product quality and optimisation of the industrial furnace operations.

Aug 21, 2024

By A Nigam, K Biswas, R Sarkar

Because of the problems with 1st and 2nd generations of Advanced High-Strength Steels (AHSS), a 3rd generation of AHSS steels has become prominent and these steels have properties in between the 1st and 2nd generations of AHSS. However, although the 3rd generation of AHSS is a promising candidate as a replacement for its predecessors, there remain some challenges in processing these steels which are essentially medium Mn (Mn content ~ 5–7 wt per cent) and high Al (Al content ~ 1– 3 wt per cent) steels. The use of conventional casting powders based on the CaO-SiO2 system is unsuitable for high and medium Mn/Al steels. This work investigates the development of CaO-Al2O3- based mold fluxes for casting third-generation AHSS steel. Mold fluxes, with otherwise similar compositions but different C/A ratios, are tested and their crystallisation behaviour is examined using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). A calcium aluminate phase having a composition Ca12Al14O33 was found to be the main crystalline phase in the mold fluxes. A decrease in crystallisation temperature was observed as the CaO/Al2O3 ratio increased from 1.00 to 1.33. The effective crystallisation rate constant exhibited an increase with decreasing crystallisation temperature, indicating a potential influence of nucleation rate on the overall crystallisation rate and suggesting an anti-Arrhenius behaviour in the crystallisation process of these mold fluxes.

Aug 21, 2024

By Z Li, Z Yan, T Htet, S Zhang

During the pyrometallurgical processes, a substantial quantity of high-temperature ironmaking and steelmaking slags, generated at temperatures ranging from 1400 to 1600°C, is wasted, as the heat contained in these slags is released into the environment during the tapping process without effective utilisation. On the other hand, a significant amount of energy is required to reheat the cold materials for the manufacturing of glass and mineral-wool, often necessitating the addition of high-silica materials to facilitate the production process. In this study, an innovative approach is presented to harness the heat present in molten metallurgical slags to directly produce new raw materials for glass and mineral-wool manufacturing while simultaneously reducing energy consumption and mitigating CO2 emissions. The theoretical amount of waste glass that can be effectively added in the process has been estimated via thermodynamic calculation. Experimental assessments were conducted to examine the impact of high-silica waste materials on the dissolution, melting and fluidity. Potential recipes for glass and mineral-wool manufacturing were suggested and an assessment of the energy savings, and reduction in CO2 emissions with manufacturing of glass and mineral-wool using this innovative approach were included. It was determined that the processes could lead to a reduction of over 26 kg of CO2 emissions per 100 kg of new material used, primarily due to the utilisation of heat from slag and the accelerated smelting process.

Aug 21, 2024

By Y D. Jeon, K S. Kim, C-H Eom, C M. Yoon

The carbon neutrality continues to require reduction of carbon usage in ironmaking and steelmaking processes. Specially, it is expected that the hot metal ratio (HMR) in the steelmaking process should be reduced essentially. Unfortunately, the reduction of the HMR in converter can bring about poor environment for nitrogen removal from molten Fe. From this situation, nitrogen prediction model has been developed to understand the fundamental of behaviour of nitrogen and quantitatively interpret its content changes in the converter process. Thermodynamic and kinetic approaches were improved based on existing mathematical model and attempted to predict nitrogen content in realtime by combining process data. In present study, heat supply from the oxidation (mainly carbon and silicon) and CO evolution in the converter are considered, and scrap melting due to the heat transfer from the molten Fe to the solid scrap charged in the converter also be considered.

Aug 21, 2024

By D Stepanenko, G Stovpchenko, L Lisova, D Togobitskaya, L Medovar

Classical electroslag remelting of consumable electrodes is a drop-by-drop melt feeding through a slag layer into a renewing molten metal bath, slowly solidifying into a homogeneous, dense, defectfree ingot in a copper water-cooled mould. The new look at the additive nature of the electroslag remelting (ESR) process in a protective atmosphere allowed us to formulate the principles of a comprehensive thermodynamic-based model that can predict dynamic changes in slag and metal composition at certain ingot remelting. The model considers drastically different slag-to-metal mass ratios at the beginning and end of remelting and predicts gas, slag and metal composition in a chain of thermodynamic subsystems. Despite consisting of calcium fluoride and stable oxides, the ESR slag can oxidise main and active elements from steel and alloys (primarily aluminium, titanium and silicon) due to chemical reactions between slag and metal. ESR is not an electrochemical process in its nature. However, slags are ionic melts and deviation in their composition causes a change in their properties, affecting both operation mode and ingot quality. Another important understanding derived from the modern metallurgy technological route is that the ability to refine metal from impurities is not a priority for the ESR because consumable electrode has already passed all stages of refining and deep degassing at ladle treatment that changes ESR slags engineering principles. The critical importance became slag’s ability to generate process heat and keep the melting composition in the metal bath unchanged (except for non-metallic inclusions assimilation). Slag engineering for ESR required a compromise between chemical inertness to a metal composition and desired physical properties deriving from technological reasons. The Directed Chemical Bonds Concept (DCBC) in a multicomponent oxide system was used to build predictive models of electric conductivity and the melting temperature of fluoride-oxide slag based on their chemical composition. Both models help to design a customised composition of effective slags for steel and alloy groups or individual grades, and they are significant steps in the development of a comprehensive model of electroslag remelting.

Aug 21, 2024