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By Dean Newman, Michael Behrens, Mark Trim, Justin Arifin

Road tunnels in recent infrastructure projects in Sydney, Australia, are designed to have a fire resistance level of either a 4-hour cellulosic fire or a 2-hour hydrocarbon fire. Where permanent ground support for tunnels consists of systematic rock bolts and relatively thin layer of shotcrete, it is important to ensure that during and after the fire event the ground support is designed/predicted not to pose risks to the tunnel occupant. The global behavior of the ground support can be predicted using finite element analysis, and its resistance is derived with consideration of the material strength degradation due to the elevated temperature.

Dec 1, 2022

By Pat Gochnour, Jim V. Rouse

Advances in the design and construction of heap­leach pads and process plants have greatly reduced. the potential for accidental releases of process olut1on. While workers in the field, and regulatory agencies such as the EPA have long recognized that the potential effects of any spills would be short term in nature due to cyanide attenuation and degradation (Engineering-Science, September, 1986, Pyrih, 1990, Rouse and Pyrih, 198, Rouse and Pyrih, 1991 ), unfortunately the general pubhc has held a perception that such a spill would be an environmental catastrophe. Few factual data on actual accidental releases have been available to dispel such a concept. Such data now exist and shoul? be disseminated to show that prompt response, using a combination of chemical oxidation, natural attenuation, and enhanced biodegradation of cyanide, can limit the effects of such rare releases, in both time and space.

Jan 1, 1992

By Francois J. E. Scholtz, Raymond J. Davidson, Peter Greenhalgh, R. Paul Riley

A 1 t/d continuous elution pilot plan is being operated by General Mining at their Grootvlei Gold Mine using the technology developed at the Anglo American Research Laboratories. Flowsheet design and plant erection was carried out by Van Eck & Lurie and completed in December 1989. Following the conclusion of six test runs designed to optimise reagent additions, it was shown that elution efficiencies of 98-99% could be achieved using reagent additions as· low as 16 kg/ton of carbon NaCN and 28 kg/ton NaOH while consistently producing eluted carbon containing less than 50 g/t gold. Significant savings were indicated when compared and power were indicated when com­pared with the traditional batch AARL, Zadra and Micron alcohol elution procedures.

Jan 1, 1990

By John W. Greene

For the past two years, Tenneco Minerals Company has been evaluating a refractory, pyritic, carbonaceous gold deposit, Results from agitated biological oxidation reactor tests show the gold extraction was increased from 15 to 90 percent using microbial oxidation, Also, no preg robbing occurred after complete microbial oxidation. Three column biological oxidation tests were then initiated on minus 1/2 inch ore. Biological oxidation was discontinued in two of the three tests, These columns then were leached with cyanide. The maximum gold recovery was 62 percent. No preg robbing was observed,

Jan 1, 1990

By Gary Beerkircher

WaterFlush Technology and WaterFlush crushing offers significant operational ben­efits in gold milling operations. WaterFlush crushing is the technology that Nordberg Inc. has developed, tested and proven in an actual operation during the 1980's. Patents have been obtained for both the process and the apparatus of implementa­tion. WaterFlush involves volumetric process controlled water flow into the ore feed cav­ity of a WF cone crusher. While the addition of water in itself is not new, the con­trolled amount of water coupled with the WF crusher operating parameters are revolution­ary. The WF crusher is a specially designed version of Nordberg's Omnicone crusher oper­ating at higher speeds, with a reduced ec­centric throw and higher horsepower capabil­ity. The results are increased capacity, higher crushing energy input and a finer crusher product. The WF crusher product is a slurry containing 40-60% solids by weight.

Jan 1, 1990

By John G. Whellock, Kevin A. Foo, John H. Canterford, Karen E. Sobel

Nitric acid has long been known as an effective oxidant. Nitric acid leaching is characterised by highly favourable kinetics. Process development was impeded due to the corrosive nature of the process, limited knowledge of acid recycle and complex reactions which are still not fully understood. In 1981, Arseno Processing Ltd (APL), began development of the so-called Arseno process. The technology targeted nitric acid oxidation of refractory gold ores and concentrates whose refractoriness was due to the presence of sulphide minerals. APL lodged patents in United States, Australia, Canada and several other countries covering the basic chemistry, the overall process, and reactor design. The name Arseno led to the misunderstanding that the process was only applicable to arsenic-bearing material. The name was therefore changed to the Redox process in 1988. Having played an important role in the development of Redox from 1986, SASOX recognised the great potential of the process and purchased the process in 1990. SASOX owns all the patents and other Redox proprietary know-how, licensing agreements in force, and is committed to the ongoing development and commercialisation of the Redox technology. Minproc has been granted specific marketing and engineering rights to the Redox pro_cess.

Jan 1, 1992

By N. D. Jagger, I. M. Arbuthnot

The recovery and destruction of cyanide in gold tailings is currently a topic of great interest for both financial and environmental reasons. The environmental problem is particularly important in the U.S.A. at present with the environmental lobby waging a campaign to eliminate the problem of migratory birds dying after drinking tailings dam wate. Tough legislation with severe fines and jail sentences for company executives have been introduced in several states for exceeding cyanide limits. To reduce cyanide levels in tailings dams chemical treatment, including acidification, alkaline chlorination, the INCO sulphur dioxide oxidation process and the Degussa hydrogen peroxide process amongst others are being. used. In addition several processes are at various stages of development for the recovery of residual cyanide from gold tailings. Among these is the process developed by Cyprus Gold and pilot tested by DSIR Industrial Development. This process uses air to strip cyanide from the acidified barren pulp and will be used at Cyprus Gold Mines Golden Cross Mine on the Coromandel Peninsula in New Zealand (Fricker & OWers 1990).

Jan 1, 1991

By Ben Ainsworth

I am going to discuss gold mining in Mexico during the last twenty centuries and try to suggest some of the futures that may develop in this industry in the next decade. Before I start this rapid review of such a long developing mining tradition, T must give credit to my sources. I an, talking here as an associate of Commoditi,c,s Reseflrch Unit Ltd. of London (better known as CRU) and as a principal of Ainsworth-Jenkins Holdings, an international mineral resource consultant group that has been exploring and deveJoping mining properties in Mexico and Central America for the last six years. CRU is the leading consultancy providing industry, governments and financial institu­tions with analysis and advice on the metals and the mining industries. They recently completed a three volume study entitled Gold Mining Opportunities in Mexico. This .<1tudy describes Mexico, the business environment, its geology and details its gold mining potential with property descriptions and maps. I have adopted and adapted the s11mmari.zed Mexican government statistics and rlrawn on some of the historical comments in these volumes. However, I do not have ti me (nor would it be appropriate) to be giving the details of the CRU work. Jorge Ordonez, whose shoes I am trying to fill today, was a major contributor to the study and it was an honour to be asked by Willem Beunderman, the Principal Editor, to step in when Jorge was unfortunately unable to be here. Jorge has been an enormous help to Ainsworth­Jenkins and a consistent friend of foreign investment in Mexico. Our own work in Mexico has allowed us to obtain a few useful in­sights into this most interesting slice 0f Mexican history.

Jan 1, 1992

By Thomas E. Weyand, Wolfgang Baum

PMET is engaged in the development of reuse operations for process wastes from the natural resources industry. Most of the current remediation practices with mining wastes are concentrated on stabilization techniques. Once stabilized, valuable resources are no longer readily available for recovery and reuse. Additionally, stabilized materials, unless protected from weathering influences, pose lingering liability for the generator.

Jan 1, 1992

By Martin F. Grier

The Mt Todd Gold Project is located 300km to the south of Darwin in the Northern Territory of Australia. The identified resource comprises 46 million tonnes at 1. 65g/t using a 1. 0g/t cut-off ( 50 million short tonnes at 0.05oz/st). The resource is open to the north and at depth. Mineralisation comprises easterly dipping sheeted quartz/sulphide veins, typically 10 to 20 millimetres in thickness, hosted by hornsfelled greywackes. The majority of the ore body is primary ore with only 10% classified as oxide ore. Early testwork showed that the ore was not suitable for heap leaching, giving only 50% recovery at a -3mm crush size. Acceptable recoveries were obtained at a P80 of 75 micron. However, the ore is extremely hard.

Jan 1, 1992

By Roman Z. Pyrih

Subsurface migration of cyanide is attenuated by naturally occurring geochemical and biogeochemical processes. Geochemical mechanisms which remove or immobilize cyanide and metal-cyanide complexes include precipitation/coprecipitation, sorption, and volatilization. Geochemical properties of soils and geochemical materials that promote the functioning of these mechanisms include the following: 1) acidic soil pH; 2) presence of illite and smectite clays; and 3) presence of iron hydrous-oxides and organic carbon. Naturally occurring soil microorganisms play perhaps a more important role in attenuating cyanide movement than previously realized. Biodegradation of cyanide is a "renewable" process, limited in its effectiveness by the avalibility of oxygen and micronutrlents (usually phosphate) to the microorganisms.

Jan 1, 1990

By Kenneth N. Han, Xinghui Meng

The leaching of gold and silver from various ores in ammoniacal solutions conta1mng various oxidants has been investigated. The samples tested included elemental gold, sulfidic as well as carbonaceous refractory ores, and tellurides. When pure elemental gold powders were used, the maximum amount of gold dissolved under the conditions studied was 16.3 ppm, 42.4 ppm, 82.0 ppm, and 152.2 ppm, respectively, at 140°C, 160° C, 180° C, and 200°C. Five different refractory ore samples were also tested. The recoveries of gold and silver from these refractory ores were typically 92% and 95%, respectively.

Jan 1, 1992

By James Whitlock, Michael Robert Wilcox

The volume of recently published material in praise of various refractory gold ore treatment methods is impressive. The authors are unfailingly bright, focused and thorough, and as each paper concludes, the reader is tempted to abandon other methods and embrace this truly better way. But there are many "better ways," many different ores, many different environmental requirements and many differ­ent economic circumstances. As we approach each set of cir­cumstances, it would be useful to have an objective way of comparing various methods in order to identify the most promising approaches. This discussion attempts to provide that.

Jan 1, 1991

By Martin H. Col, Thomas W. Steele

The ability to make a good profit in the mining industry is becoming more and more difficult. Typically, grades are lower, sites are more remote, and environmental restrictions are getting tighter than ever before. While the price of the materials P.roduced, such as gold and silver, have stayed flat or declined, the external costs (goods and services) have increased. Increasingly difficult environmental restrictions have increased the lime and costs of develoJ?in9 new deposits, while often placing restrictions on a mme s production rate. Environmental costs for mine closure and site reclamation also make it very difficult to show a long-term profit while mining. Typically, the answer to this cost/price squeeze has been technological innovation. The whole concept of heap leaching low-grade gold ore is one innovation that provided some very goocf profits to the mining companies; but, today, those profits are being eroded by the continuing cost/ price squeeze. This paper will discuss material handling in a heap leach stacking operation and the alternatives of trucks, grasshopper conveY.or systems and mobile conveyor systems.

Jan 1, 1992

By Dan Adams, Thomas Post, Paul Kubera, Mike Preston

Mixing is a common unit operation in the mining industry. Mixers are often used in agitated leach, bio-oxidation, and pressure oxidation. In all of these cases it is important to understand the application and what it requires from a mixer in order to be opti­mized. In the mining industJy, it is obviously important to suspend solids. However, the shear level of each of these three applications is ve1y different. In acid leaching, the mixer needs to suspend solids and produce a good degree of blending. In pressure oxida­tion, the agitator must also disperse air or oxygen by creating fine bubbles. Because of the presence of microorganisms, bio-oxida­tion requires less shear than the other two processes, but the agita­tor must be able to suspend the solids, provide excellent blend­ing/heat tJ·ansfer and distribute the air. Thus, in the mining indus­tiy there is an application spectJ·um that requires different impellers to perfotm different jobs. Specifically, these jobs are blending, solids suspension, gas dispersion, mass transfer and heat transfer. It is important to determine whether the process is mass transfer or kinetic rate limited. Mixers affect a mass transfer limitation but have no affect on the kinetics.

Jan 1, 1998

By Neville T. Moxen, Stuart K. Nicol, Malcolm D. Engel

Ion flotation is a process in which ions of interest are complexed with a suitable surfactant molecule. A dilute solution containing these complexes is then aerated, under which circumstance the surface-active complex concentrates at the air-water interface and is transferred to a froth. The present work describes some of the phenomenology of this process and experimental work leading up to the design and use of a pilot scale laboratory facility. Early experiments suggest that selective recovery of gold can be obtained in a manner at least equivalent to conventional CIP processing at low capital cost. Under favourable conditions, upgrade ratios of gold ions of the order of 180: l have been achieved from reclaimed residue dam water with as low an initial gold level as 0.2ppm. Successful development of countercurrent ion flotation for concentrating solids-free gold solutions may offer a lower cost alternative to existing gold ore processing technologies, or in more secondary applications such as concentrating dilute gold solutions or heap leach runoff. The technology may also have more generalised applications to other heavy metal processing.

Jan 1, 1990

By George Munro

New Zealand is a small, almost pristinely pure country environmentally speaking. It is blessed with an abundance of clear waterways, lush green vegetation and fresh clean air. It is a country in which agriculture and forestry predominate, and mining developments have to be introduced prepared to answer in considerable detail the question "How will this proposal affect the New Zealand environment as we know it today". Those who make the legislation have the difficult problem of establishing standards at a level which will maintain as far as possible the status quo without unduly inhibiting the developments currently approaching the starting line. We have been fortunate in some sense in that since the demise of the early gold rush days by the 1920's, little mineralisation of a complex nature has been uncovered in New Zealand. Coal fields have been developed in the central North Island, and on the West Coast and Southland regions of the South Island. A ban on large scale open cast mines in the Coromandel area has restricted mining in that highly prospective area, although three large gold prospects have got underway elsewhere in the last three years. There is no other ore processing being undertaken at present. Some recent proposals involving lead, gold and silver in complex arseno­ sulphides have failed to get the necessary approvals and have been discarded. Our ore processing problems are therefore straightforward ones, and confine themselves to acid drainage, mercury handling and disposal, and cyanide.

Jan 1, 1991

By William E. Bedal, Richard S. Kunter

Artech Recovery Systems, Inc has developed a low pressure and temperature chloride leach process called the "Caslumu1 Process" to extract metals from arsenical flue dusts and residues and fix the arsenic in an environmentally stable form as ferric arsenate (scorodite). The process was pilot tested at Hazen Research in an integrated plant including continuous recycle from August 1989 to October 1989 during which several tons of flue dust were processed. Based on this pilot program, the process was deemed technically feasible and produced commercially salable products. Residues from this pilot program were subjected to a long-term stability test jointly designed by Prl environmental services and the USEPA. The process, its versatility, and the nature of the products ls discussed in some detail.

Jan 1, 1992

By Peter Maltby

A $20M pressure oxidation facility is under construction at the Nerco Con Mine, Yellowknife. Plant commissioning will start in the third quarter of 1992. Roasting of arsenical auriferous concentrates prior to 1970 left 45,000 tons each of highly toxic gold-bearing arsenic trioxide sludge and roaster calcine at the minesite. Safe disposal of these wastes has been a high priority. In 1983 an arsenic trioxide plant was built by the former owner to re-treat the sludge and to sell the product. Due to a poor market and high operating losses, the plant was closed by Nerco in 1989. Mine production in the future will revert increasingly to refractory ore as a replacement for free-milling ore which has been the mill feed since the roaster was shut down. With this fact in mind, Nerco management saw the potential of a proven process to recover the gold from a combined feedstock of refractory flotation concentrate, sludge, and calcine waste. A further requirement was the stabilization of all the arsenic as an insoluble ferric arsenate. By the end of 1989, after the completion of a literature search and a study of process economics, pressure oxidation was selected. Extensive bench and pilot plant work was completed in 1990 and early 1991 to develop the process parameters and to complete environmental testing of the autoclave products. Management approval for construction of a pressure oxidation facility was made in December 1990. Plant capacity is 96 tpd requiring a 40 tpd VSA oxygen plant on site. Detailed engineering began in March 1991. The pressure oxidation building was completed by the end of 1991. The autoclave arrived on site and was mounted on its foundation in December 1991.

Jan 1, 1992

By R. Bruce Thorndycraft

The Land Application Disposal (LAD) system will be described, in its most typical adaptation. A bibliography of existing mines using LAD will be presented. Numerous variations of the concept have been used and will be described.

Jan 1, 1992