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Mining and the related extractive and processing industries are chiefly responsible for America's high standard of living. Enormous quantities of sand and gravel, limestone, copper, iron and a myriad of other mineral commodities are required to sustain our growing nation. However, the mineral deposits, both domestic and foreign, are becoming increasingly difficult to find. Adding substantially to the problem, is the fact that the conditions are worldwide. Foreign politics are increasingly affecting mineral commodity availability. Figure 1, taken from Bureau of Mines, "Status of the Mineral industries 1976" illustrates our dependency (in some cases total) on foreign sources for vital mineral commodities. While few nations are capable of exerting an OPEC-like influence on any one mineral commodity, the threat of cartel arrangements and related control strategies is evident. Nationalization of entire industries, once they become self-sufficient, is also exerting a disruptive influence on a large portion of the mineral industries.

Jan 1, 1977

By W. M. Bangert, F. S. Boericke

"INTRODUCTION Previous investigations of the Boulder City station of the Bureau of Mines have demonstrated that low-grade domestic chromite concentrates can be roasted with carbon to obtain selective reduction of the contained iron, and that the reduced iron can be removed by acid leaching of the roasted products to produce residues with higher chromium iron ratios. Thus, some chromite ores or concentrates that originally contain too much iron to be acceptable for the production of ferrochrome can, by this treatment, be rendered marketable as ""high-grade"" chromite. 3/The present report supplements the earlier work of the Bureau and re¬cords the results of small-scale laboratory tests investigating the effects of:1. Temperature and time of the reducing roast.2. Chromite and carbon particle size.3. Ratio of carbon to chromite in the initial roast mixture.4. Variations in the alumina and silica content of the ore.5. Back-oxidation of the roast product.6. Temperature and time of leaching .of roast product.This work differs from that done previously in that particular emphasis was placed on roast mixtures containing just enough carbon for the reduction of the iron in the chromite, whereas some two and one-half times this amount of carbon was used in the earlier work.In addition to these tests, the mechanism of the production reactions was examined for the purpose of explaining the precance of acid-soluble chromium, which occurs under certain conditions of chromite reduction."

Jul 1, 1945

By Robert M. Doerr

The research objective was to determine the effect of aluminum alloy additions on the oxidation behavior of cobalt-nickel alloys. Thirty high-purity alloys were reacted with 02 at 0.5 atm at 1,351°, 1,389°, and 1,429° K in a volumetric apparatus for about 300 min. The alloy compositions consisted of Co-Ni master alloys (0, 22, 50, 70, 91, and 100 wt pct Ni) with aluminum additions of about 0, 1, 2, 4, and 8 wt pet. Large early deviations from, or changes in, the parabolic rate constant were encountered, but in most cases, the reaction rate declined approximately in accordance with the parabolic rate law. A sharp peak in the parabolic oxidation rate constant was observed for specimens containing a to 22 percent nickel and 1 to 2 percent aluminum at 1,351° K, and the rate constants for these compositions were lower at the higher temperatures. Specimens containing 8 percent aluminum reacted far more slowly than did any of the others.

Jan 1, 1971

By Harry Vivian

This paper deals principally with the retreating method of mining as applied in the Calumet & Hecla Consolidated Copper Co.'s deep Conglomerate mine, pointing cut some of the difficulties encountered in deep mining and describing the particular methods used at Calumet to carry on a large-scale operation at great depth with a minimum hazard factor. The circular is one of a series dealing with mining methods and costs which is being prepared for and published by the United States Bureau of Mines. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Acknowledgment is due to those officials and operating heads of the Calumet & Hecla Cc. whose years of familiarity with the conditions developing at the Conglomerate mine as great depth was attained have enabled them to contribute valuable information to the subject of deep-mining problems.

Jan 1, 1931

By R. L. de Beauchamp

A preliminary investigation was made of the extraction of chromium from ferrochromium by low-temperature chlorination in the 3400 to 5250 C range. The objective was to devise a method for separating chromium from iron in high-carbon ferrochromium produced from domestic chromite concentrates. The majority of iron was removed as a volatile chloride; chromium was contained in the residue as a nonvolatile chloride, which was separated from carbon and unattacked ferrochromium by dissolution. A small rotary chlorination apparatus was designed, built, and used for the chlorination tests, and samples of commercial-grade high-and low-carbon ferrochromiums were chlorinated for comparison of chlorination characteristics. Low-temperature chlorination of three types of ferrochromium resulted in the removal of 81.9 to 91.6 percent of the iron content as sublimed FeC13. Recovery of chromium in a leach solution of the reactor product varied from 82.4 to 93.1 percent.

Jan 1, 1968

By T. N. Rushton

Rate minima are encountered in the reduction of magnetite with hydrogen. In a certain temperature zone, the reaction rate decreases with rise in temperature. This is inexplicable by classical kinetic theories; neither is a transition in reduction mechanism suitable for interpreting the observed behavior, This anomaly can be fully explained by hypothesizing two species of chemisorbed hydrogen with different adsorption coefficients and activation energies for adsorption. Competition between two energetic states of adsorption occurs with temperature rise, with the low energy state predominating below the anomalous temperature zone and the high energy state above it. The presence of two possible adsorption sites appears to be characteristic for oxidic adsorbents.

Jan 1, 1968

By Edward A. Metz, R. Larry Grayson, Douglas F. Scott

We describe inconsistencies in disease and illness reporting in U.S. mining, identify under-reporting of disease and illness in U.S. mining, and summarize selected disease and illness in U.S. mining from 1983 through 2001. Methods: We summarized information on mining-related disease and illness data for the years 1983-2001 from the Mining Safety and Health Administration database (MSHA). Results: Discrepancies exist in types of information collected by the Centers for Disease and Control, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, and the Mining Safety and Health Admin¬istration database. Several factors, including a worker's fear of losing his or her job, health insurance, or other job-related benefits contribute to under-reporting of disease and illness information in the US mining industry. Conclusions: Since 1997, both number of workers employed in mining and disease and illness rates have decreased; however, the highest disease and illness rates in mining continue to be coal worker's pneumoconiosis and hearing loss.

By R. L. Blake

The crystal structure of hematite, a-Fe203, has been refined as part of a continuing study of the behavior of phases in the Fe-O system during reduction and oxidation. Three-dimensional diffraction intensities were collected on two spherical single crystals of hematite with a semiautomated Buerger single-crystal diffractometer. The first crystal refined was a natural Elba hematite with minor impurities. The other, a synthetic crystal, was refined at the request of Mossbauer spectroscopy investigators concerned with impurities in the natural crystal. The structure has been refined with a least-squares program and the final structure for the natural crystal irradiated with CuKa-radiation gave a discrepancy factor (R) of 3.65 percent using 49 unrejected reflections of the 51 measured. For the synthetic crystal, using MoKa-radiation, the discrepancy factor converged to 2.8 percent using 95 unrejected reflections and was 3.3 percent for all 109 reflections. The structure model of Pauling and Hendricks has been confirmed with essentially no change in the iron coordinates and approximately a 5-percent change in the oxygen coordinates. Selected interatomic distances and angles were calculated as were anisotropic temperature factors.

Jan 1, 1970

By E. M. Cohn

The literature dealing with the electrical conductivity of solid dielectrics, including all its aspects and its relationships to other physical properties of these materials, is extensive and scattered in many books, phamphlets, and periodicals. It is believed that most of the important contributions to this field up to October 1943 have been listed and abstracted in this circular. Also included are some general references on static electricity. Methods of removing static charges are described; methods of and conditions for measurements of resistivity are discussed; equations for the calculation of resistivity are given; and methods of resistance measurements in Situ are reviewed. Data on the variations of resistivity with changing conditions as well as explanations for them have been collected, and three tables showing the resistivity of various dielectrics at different humidities are included. The appendix contains a short development of the mathematical formulation of the charging and discharging currents due to interfacial polarisation. INTRODUCTION Methods for Removing Static Electricity Of the various means employed for preventing or removing accumulations of static electricity in industrial processes, grounding is the most common and most generally effective. It is a precaution readily applied to stationary machines anti may often be utilized to good advantage to rid persons and portable equipment of an acquired charge. There are many situations, however, in which direct low-resistance grounding cannot be used, either because the charged bodies are insulators or are inaccessible, or because contact to a ground lead might give rise to a hazardous spark. If the charged body is a conductor, contact made to a neighboring conductor, even though the latter be insulated from ground and of relatively small capacitance, may also result in the occurrence of an incendive spark. In such instances, static electricity can sometimes be removed most satisfactorily by means of strong atmospheric ionization produced by radioactive material, X-rays, ultraviolet light, or A. C. high-voltage brush discharge. Where no danger exists from flammable

Jan 1, 1944

By Parviz F. Rad

The Bureau of Mines used a linear cutting apparatus equipped with a 7-inch disk cutter to cut grooves in marble, limestone, granite, and quartzite under a normal force of 7,000 lb. The size distribution of the muck for various grooves was determined through sieve analysis. A statistical search showed that Weibull distribution describes the size distribution better than other available functions. Results indicate that fineness modulus, chip population, and dimension of the largest chip can be used as indicators of cutting efficiency. The results correlate with those obtained from the boring machines and other lab experiments. Application of the principles established through this work to the operation of boring machines is explained

Jan 1, 1974

By Eugene T. Sheridan

The Bureau of Mines annually canvasses the fuel-briquet and packaged-fuel producers in the United States and publishes economic data on these industries, based upon reports submitted voluntarily by producers. This publication lists all producers that reported commercial production to the Bureau for 1960 and presents data on individual plants. The companies named herein represent virtually all producers of processed minerals fuels. A few small plants may not have been canvassed or failed to respond to the survey because some of the smaller plants operate intermittently and the survey is voluntary. All plants that reported commercial production were included; regardless of size. Specifically excluded were plants that manufactured briquets from wood charcoal. Fuel briquets and packaged fuel are manufactured solid fuels, produced by mixing fine-sized mineral fuels with binding materials and compressing into small individual shapes, Briquets are produced in pillow-shaped and cylindrical form, are 2 to 4 inches long, and weigh 2 to 4 ounces. Packaged fuel consists of 3- or 4-inch cubes; 6 or 8 of which are wrapped together in heavy kraft paper to form a package weighing 10 to 15 pounds, Briquets are durable and may be stored and handled as bulk fuel; packaged fuel breaks easily and must be stored indoors to prevent it from deteriorating. Whereas briquets are consumed in many areas as a general residential fuel, packaged fuel is more of a specialty item, used at times to supplement other fuels. Packaged fuel is burned without re-moving the paper and is referred to as the "white glove" fuel.

Jan 1, 1961

By Kenneth Eilerts

[The development and operation of ?combination on wells?5/ have created new and unusual problems, many of which cast to solved only if information is available concerning the properties of the fluids produced. Data as to the characteristics of the fluids at the relatively high pressures that exist in the reservoirs are especially important, and there is growing economic concern to know what part, if any, of the liquid recovered at the surface was liquid in the reservoir, As an extension of this problem, it is important to Know whether liquid will be formed in the reservoir it as a result o a isothermal retrograde condensation when the reservoir pressure is reduced. The pressure range of such condensation, if it occurs, is significant in the design of gas-recycling plants for maintaining reservoir pressures. In connection with the operation of such plants, it is particularly important to know how gyres sure and temperature will affect the yield of the liquid phase and the composition of the gas to be returned to the reservoir. It has not been possible to predict the behavior of these fluids that have high ratios of gas to liquid by comparing them with the behavior of low gas-liquid ratio fluids at identical pressures and temperatures. Such comparison fails because the proportions in which a component will be distributed between the phases of a system at any given temperature and pressure depend increasingly on the composition of the mixture as the critical temperature and pressure of the oysters are approached. Because many combination wells are producing from reservoirs that have temperatures near the critical point, experimental date on the properties of the fluids under reservoir conditions are particularly important at this time. To rest the immediate requirements of the industry for such experimental information an equilibrium cell has been constructed at the Petroleum Experiment Station of the Bureau of Mines, Bartlesville, Okla. When adequate experimental date, have boon accumulated, it may be possible to mare dependable estimates of the phase relations ft. high gas-liquid ratio fluids at the pre runes and temperatures characteristics of ?combination-well? reservoirs.]

Jan 1, 1940

By J. L. Holman

The Bureau of Mines is conducting research to improve technology for the recovery of strategic and critical metals, such as cobalt, nickel, and chromium, that are lost in bulk and particulate superalloy-type scrap because it has not been possible to process mixed contaminated scrap efficiently. The research approach involves melting and casting mixed superalloy scrap into soluble anodes for electrodeposition of Ni-Co alloys by controlled-potential electrolysis. The initial experimental results described in this report are from electrolytic tests us-ing alloy anodes cast from elemental nickel, cobalt, and chromium, the main constituent metals of superalloys. Baseline data and operating parameters are necessary for Ni-Co and Ni-Co-Cr alloys before detailed experiments can be conducted on the more complex superalloy scrap. This basic research assessed the effects of cathode potential, S04:CI electrolyte ratio, electrolyte pH, stirring rate, deposition time, cathode current density, and chromium concentration on cathode current efficiency, alloy deposit composition, and deposition potential at a cell temperature of 55° C.

Jan 1, 1985

By Nick Barton

When the Q-system was launched in 1974, the name referred to rock mass classification, with focus on tunnel and cavern support selection. Besides empirical design of support, the Q-value, or its normalized value Qc, has been found to correlate with seismic P-wave velocity, with deformation modulus, and with deformation. The Q-system provides temporary or permanent support for road, rail, and mine roadway tunnels and for caverns for various uses. It also gives relative cost and time for tunnel construction for a complete range of rock qualities. There are also indications that Q has captured important elements of the cohesive and frictional strength of rock masses, with Qc resembling the product of rock mass cohesion and rock mass friction coefficient.

Jan 5, 2007

By Donald O. Capstick

The U.S. Bureau of Mines conducted an inventory of the prospects and mineral resources in the Scodies RARE II area (No. 5212) in 1982. No mineral production is recorded from the area, and no mines are being developed. The Scodies RARE II area is comprised primarily of light colored granodiorite with minor inclusions of mafic granitic rocks. Late stage differentiates of magmas resulted in quartz veins and pods. Metasedimentary rocks which have been mineralized in some parts of the Sierra Nevada were not observed within the study area during this investigation but small inclusions have been reported.

Jan 1, 1983

By Ronald W. Schaefer

This report describes operations at the Rosiclare Fluorspar Works of the Aluminum Co. of America at Rosiclare, Hardin County, Ill. The works include the Fairview mine, the fluorspar mill, and related facilities. The publication covers exploration, development, mining and milling practices, mine-drainage problems, and other activities and is presented as part of the Bureau of Mines series of publications on mining and milling practices in various parts of the United States. The Rosiclare fluorspar area, for its size, has been the largest producer of high-grade fluorspar in the United States and probably in the world. The vein system in this area is over 5 miles long and 1/2 mile wide, and ore has been found as deep as 900 ft.

Jan 1, 1961

By Joseph A. DeCarlo

Coal is one of our basic sources of energy (heat, power, light) and an essential raw material for most metallurgical processing. More than two-thirds of the electricity currently produced by thermal powerplants in the United States is generated by coal, and it is expected that coal will continue to be the major fuel used for this application at least through the 1970's. Coke produced from bituminous coking coal is the principal fuel of iron blast furnaces, and unless ironmaking methods change greatly, coal will continue to maintain a dominant role in iron-ore processing and steel manufacturing for many years. Export markets are expected to increase also, adding to the overall increased demand for coal. Accompanying the increased total requirement, however, will be an ever-increasing demand for higher quality coals, specifically, coals of low sulfur content. Except for special-purpose coals such as those used for the production if coke and ceramics where impurities in the fuel contaminate the end product, the amount of sulfur in coal has been only a minor consideration in the selection of a particular coal for fuel. Major considerations, particularly for the coals used to generate electric power, have been availability and cost. An increased national concern for control of air pollution, however, particularly that resulting from the emission of sulfur oxides in stack gases to the atmosphere, has led to more rigid specifications on coal quality, and the sulfur content of coals will become increasingly more important in the future.

Jan 1, 1966

By Joseph A. DeCarlo

Coal is one of our basic sources of energy (heat, power, light) and an essential raw material for most metallurgical processing. More than two-thirds of the electricity currently produced by thermal powerplants in the United States is generated by coal, and it is expected that coal will continue to be the major fuel used for this application at least through the 1970's. Coke produced from bituminous coking coal is the principal fuel of iron blast furnaces, and unless ironmaking methods change greatly, coal will continue to maintain a dominant role in iron-ore processing and steel manufacturing for many years. Export markets are expected to increase also, adding to the overall increased demand for coal. Accompanying the increased total requirement, however, will be an ever-increasing demand for higher quality coals, specifically, coals of low sulfur content. Except for special-purpose coals such as those used for the production if coke and ceramics where impurities in the fuel contaminate the end product, the amount of sulfur in coal has been only a minor consideration in the selection of a particular coal for fuel. Major considerations, particularly for the coals used to generate electric power, have been availability and cost. An increased national concern for control of air pollution, however, particularly that resulting from the emission of sulfur oxides in stack gases to the atmosphere, has led to more rigid specifications on coal quality, and the sulfur content of coals will become increasingly more important in the future.

Jan 1, 1966

By Dennis McLaughin

This report contains a description of the contract activities performed by ENSCO, Inc. under contract No. H0178069. The purpose of this project was to enhance the Bureau of Mine?s Cableless Electronic Survey System use to aid in the drilling of long (approx. 2000 feet) boreholes in coal. This drilling is performed as part of the methane drainage program. The system that was ultimately developed was field tested 2nd demonstrated in actual in-mine drilling activities. The significance of this system as compared to previous drill survey systems is the fact that it surveys without having to be inserted and removed for each survey point. It is so designed that it can withstand the shock and vibration experience by the drill string during drilling. This means an increased productivity is now possible in that drill operators can determine drill bit positioning in a near real-time environment.

Jan 1, 1981

By B. J. Moore

This publication contains analyses and related source data for 310 natural gas samples from wells and pipelines in 16 States. All of the samples were obtained and analyzed during calendar year 1978 as a part of Bureau of Mines investigations of the occurrences of helium in natural gases of countries with free market economies. This survey has been conducted in the United States by the Bureau of Mines since 1917. In late 1965, the survey was expanded to include foreign gasfields. The analyses published herein were made by mass spectrometer and a special helium analysis appara¬tus, which are described in Bureau of Mines Bulletins 4862/ and 576.3/ The results of the investigation of the occurrences of helium are published annually to make the information available as soon as possible to the gas industry and the public in general. Twenty previous publications have presented the results of 11,573 gas analyses made prior to 197R. The first three, Bulletins 486,4/ 576,5/ and 617,6/ contain analyses and related source data on 5,218 gas samples collected from 1917 through 1960. The other 17

Jan 1, 1979