Search Documents

By H. S. Gipson

A process that has come to be known locally as "multistage stabilization" has been developed in the Haft Kel field of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. in southwest Iran, for the recovery of casinghead gasoline. It consists in releasing the dissolved gases from the crude by stages, a practice common in many fields, but which, so far as is known, has nowhere been carried to the extent to which it is employed in Iran. It has been in use there for nearly nine years, during which time some 200 million barrels of crude have been handled by the process. This process of gasoline retention consists in preventing the greater part of the casinghead gasoline hydrocarbons (the butanes and pentanes) from ever leaving the crude, instead of allowing them to be vaporized and then recovered from the lighter gases by the usual compression or absorption processes. Its efficiency is fully equal to that obtained by the absorption process; its disadvantage is that it increases the quantities of ethane and propane in the crude sent to the refinery, but with the growing demand for propane this drawback is vanishing. When casinghead gasoline is recovered as a separate liquid in the Iranian fields, it is blended with the crude, as the only outlet is through the refinery, and the crude-oil pipe line offers the cheapest means of transportation. It is under these conditions that the retention of the butanes and pentanes in the crude by multistage stabilization is a most attractive process, possessing as it does the following advantages: (1) extreme simplicity, (2) low first cost, (3) easy installation! (4) practically 100 per cent operating-time efficiency, (5) no operators required, (6) no water or other services required, (7) negligible maintenance, (8) once established, very little routine testing is necessary. The one essential for reasonably efficient multistage stabilization is that the flowing pressures of the wells should be relatively high; i.e., they should not be less than about one-third the saturation pressure of the crude in the reservoir. This is a very general statement, of course, and much depends on the type of crude and its temperature.

Jan 1, 1940

By H. S. Gipson

A process that has come to be known locally as "multistage stabilization" has been developed in the Haft Kel field of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. in southwest Iran, for the recovery of casinghead gasoline. It consists in releasing the dissolved gases from the crude by stages, a practice common in many fields, but which, so far as is known, has nowhere been carried to the extent to which it is employed in Iran. It has been in use there for nearly nine years, during which time some 200 million barrels of crude have been handled by the process. This process of gasoline retention consists in preventing the greater part of the casinghead gasoline hydrocarbons (the butanes and pentanes) from ever leaving the crude, instead of allowing them to be vaporized and then recovered from the lighter gases by the usual compression or absorption processes. Its efficiency is fully equal to that obtained by the absorption process; its disadvantage is that it increases the quantities of ethane and propane in the crude sent to the refinery, but with the growing demand for propane this drawback is vanishing. When casinghead gasoline is recovered as a separate liquid in the Iranian fields, it is blended with the crude, as the only outlet is through the refinery, and the crude-oil pipe line offers the cheapest means of transportation. It is under these conditions that the retention of the butanes and pentanes in the crude by multistage stabilization is a most attractive process, possessing as it does the following advantages: (1) extreme simplicity, (2) low first cost, (3) easy installation! (4) practically 100 per cent operating-time efficiency, (5) no operators required, (6) no water or other services required, (7) negligible maintenance, (8) once established, very little routine testing is necessary. The one essential for reasonably efficient multistage stabilization is that the flowing pressures of the wells should be relatively high; i.e., they should not be less than about one-third the saturation pressure of the crude in the reservoir. This is a very general statement, of course, and much depends on the type of crude and its temperature.

Jan 1, 1940

By Harold H. Goe, Louis V. Bender

The recovery of arsenic was started at the Washoe Reduction Works (later called the Anaconda Reduction Works) in 1904, when an arsenic plant was constructed adjacent to the lower end of the 60-ft. main flue.' This plant originally consisted of a Brunton roasting furnace for treatment of flue dust and a small reverberatory furnace for treating the crude arsenic produced in the roasting operations, together with the necessary kitchens for condensation of the fumes and grinding and barreling apparatus for preparing the refined white arsenic for market. The Brunton furnace was fired with wood. It was 14 ft. 6 in. in diameter with two outside fireboxes. The hearth revolved upon a central shaft. The charge was fed through a dust-tight hopper on to the center of the hearth and slowly moved to the outer edge of three rows of stationary rabbles fastened in the roof of the furnace. There was a 3-ft. space between the hearth and roof. A crude arsenic was condensed from this furnace. The hot flame from the fireboxes passed directly over the charge, vaporizing the As203 that was carried through brick flues to the condensing chamber. This chamber was 8 ft. high, 16 ft. wide and 240 ft. long, divided into small kitchens by partitions spaced every 7 ft. It was connected with the main flue system to provide draft and to receive any losses from the chamber. The small kitchens were connected by openings in such a way that the fumes took a zigzag course, causing them to come in contact with the cold walls and ceiling and condense the arsenic. There was an opening from the outside into each kitchen, for the removal of the deposited arsenic, which was closed by a wooden door. The refining furnace was a small coke-fired reverberatory having a hearth 10 by 20 ft. in dimensions. It had three hoppers through which the crude charge was introduced, and one firebox placed at one end. The hot gas from the burning coke passed over the charge, volatilizing the arsenic and carrying it to the kitchens.

Jan 1, 1934

By H. R., Collins

THE purpose of pulverizing coal before burning it is to make available every heat unit it contains. Machinery has been developed which will pulverize coal in one operation, delivering it to bins in front of the furnaces at an expenditure of about 17 hp.-hr. per ton, in a medium-sized plant. The cost of the operation depends upon the amount of moisture that must be expelled before pulverizing, the cost of labor, and the cost of coal delivered at the plant. At a small plant, requiring a pulverizer with a capacity of only ½ ton per hour, the cost per ton pulverized will naturally be greater than at a plant requiring the largest pulverizer, with a capacity of 7 tons per hour. The first step is to reduce large lumps to a size suitable for drying uniformly, before passing to the pulverizing mills; this is done in rolls, at a single pass. The second -step is the elimination of moisture, in order to facilitate pulverizing to great fineness, while also increasing the heating effect and the temperature attainable when the coal is burned. There are other mechanical advantages in the handling of, dried coal. Driers are now manufactured which are able to eliminate moisture without distilling any of the volatile combustible matter in the coal; they are fired by hand or with pulverized fuel. The heat first surrounds the shell of the drier, being confined within a chamber where complete combustion takes place; the heated gases are then led through a duct to the discharge end of the drier and enter the inside of the shell at a temperature not exceeding 300° F. This temperature is maintained by the operator and is indicated by a pyrometer. Volatile combustible matter is not likely to be distilled until the temperature rises above 400° F. On discharging from the drier, the coal is usually passed over a magnetic separator in order to prevent pieces of iron from going to the pulverizer. Two types are used: a magnetic pulley which automatically discharges its collection of iron, and a lifting type, from which the iron is removed by hand when convenient.

Jan 4, 1918

By R. E. Zimmerman

ALTHOUGH flotation of coal is considered relatively new in the United States by coal-preparation engineers, actually it has been practiced to some extent for the past 30 years, It is practiced much more widely in Europe than in the United States. Commercial plants are operating in nearly all major coal-producing countries of the world. A froth flotation plant has been operating since 1930 at the Champion No, 1 preparation plant of the Pittsburgh Coal Co. Unfortunately the term flotation is widely used in the United States by coal-preparation engineers to designate dense medium processes of coal cleaning. As used here, flotation means those processes for cleaning fine sizes of coal in which the coal is collected in a froth or matte at or near the surface of a pulp. The refuse particles remain in the pulp. Two distinct types of flotation are practiced: froth flotation and agglomeration. FORMS OF FLOTATION The theory of the principles of flotation and of the physicochemical foundations surrounding this process has become a complex and scientific field and coal-preparation engineers contemplating use of flotation processes would do well to study the works of Gaudin, 2, 5 Taggart, 3 Zimmerman, 4 Wark, 6 Ralston, 7 Petersen. 8 Bulk Oil Flotation.-In this process the separation of mineral from gangue is accomplished by virtue of the fact that minerals of metallic lustre, as sulphides, or hydrocarbons, as coal and graphite, are wetted preferentially by oil in the presence of water and consequently pass into the interface between oil and water; while gangue or rock is wetted by water and remains in the medium. Beginning in 1860 with Haynes and later between 1897 and 1907, at least 25 patents were granted for bulk oil flotation. Large quantities of oil are required, generally 3 to 25 per cent by weight of feed, and recovery of such oil is a major problem. The Elmore process 3 (1901 and 1902) is an example of a bulk oil process, The Trent process (1902-25) has been used for the cleaning of coal on a commercial scale, According to E. W, Davidson 9 there were five such plants operating in the United States by 1925. They have since been abandoned.

Jan 1, 1950

By Felix Vogel

SINCE the publication of Prof. J. W. Richards's paper on The Schumacher Briquetting Process,2 this process has been in operation on a practical .scale in two plants in the United States, and a few notes on the results obtained may he of interest. An experimental plant, consisting of a toggle press and a hydraulic press, was installed at Johnstown, Pa., together with the necessary bins and other equipment, and an attempt was made to briquette a mixture of Mahoning fines and blast, furnace flue dust, in a ratio of 7 parts of ore to 3 parts of dust. The results were unsatisfactory, in that the briquettes made were not hard enough to stand the severe handling to which they were subjected in the various transferences necessary between the press and the furnace. The trouble was clue to several causes: First, the mechanical arrangement of the plant, which did not lend itself to a proper hardening and loading of the briquettes into the cars. Second, the irregular composition of the flue dust, as to both its lime and its fine coke contents. Third, the variability of the moisture content of the ore, and its viscosity when wet. Fourth, the ratio of fine ore to flue dust; that is, it was attempted to bind in too large a quantity of fine ore for the small amount of flue dust used. The first trouble could be overcome, and has been improved upon in the plant as it stands to-day. The second trouble was important, because of the small amount of dust used as a binder, and might have been easily removed by mixing the flue dust of the different furnaces, which, however, was never done. The third difficulty was more serious, but could have been partly solved, had it been possible to meet this along with the fourth difficulty, by decreasing the percentage of ore in the briquettes. It was proposed to do this, but it seems that the problem at the works in question is, primarily, to prepare Mahoning fines for reduction in the blast furnace, and only secondarily to use up the flue dust, and a solution along this line did not seem to be interesting.

Jan 12, 1913

By Zay Jeffries

AMONG the various metals with low specific gravity, two, aluminum and magnesium, are used in the nearly pure state or as bases for light-weight alloys. Although the production of magnesium is only about one-twenty-fifth that of aluminum, a higher percentage of its output is used in the transportation industry than that of any other metal. The per-centage varies from year to year but, on the average, more than three-fourths of the magnesium production has been used for this purpose. In the United States, about 40 per cent of the aluminum production is used for transportation purposes. It seems obvious that equipment demanding repeated movement with need for rapid acceleration and deceleration should be as light in weight as the economics of engineering materials will permit. There are, however, differences of opinion with reference to both the economics and the engineering aspects of this subject. Tables 1 to 7 inclusive relate to the principal light-metal materials currently used in the transportation industry. These, with the accom-panying titles and footnotes, are in the main self-explanatory. Although the variations in mechanical properties can be easily seen from the tables, it should be kept in mind that the values given are for ordinary tempera-tures and that the changes in properties with temperature are not the same for the different alloys. Also, the corrosion properties cannot be deduced accurately either from the compositions or from the physical properties. Again, certain of these alloys are used because they possess desirable combinations of properties not listed in tine tables, including heat conductivity, coefficient of expansion, machinability, ease of casting or working, light reflectivity, anodic coating characteristics, etc. These, together with variations in prices, must be given careful analysis to effec-tively utilize the light alloys. Some of the alloys listed in the tables are new and some are old, but all are standard. Even the older alloys are available in new shapes and larger sizes than heretofore, and all are used in the transportation industry in structures of new design. Certain of the applications of specific alloys will be touched upon in the following brief history of the use of the light metals in transportation.

Jan 1, 1936

By Edward Pesout

THE McGill smelter started operations in the year 1907. The smelter furnaces were fired with run-of-mine coal on grates until April 1911, when oil firing was introduced. Oil firing continued until April 1918, when the initial coal-pulverizing plant was started.1 EARLY PULVERIZING PLANT Various alterations were made to that plant during its operation, one of the more important being in connection with the system for delivering pulverized coal. In order to minimize coal-dust explosions and fires, the return portion of the main delivery line was eliminated in the year 1928. Thereafter coal-dust explosions and fires were greatly reduced. Pulverized coal was prepared at this plant primarily for the reverberatory furnaces, but for several years it was also delivered to the converting plant, roasters and power-plant boilers by a system of auxiliary fans and delivery lines. During the period March 29 to April 8, 1929, one reverberatory furnace was fired with pulverized coal produced by an Aero, type J, unit coal pulverizer with a rated capacity of 5 tons per hour. This machine actually pulverized its rated capacity but the product was too coarse. After certain regulations, a finer product was obtained but the pulverizer capacity decreased and this resulted in insufficient coal for efficient furnace operation. Table I gives a comparison of the average screen analyses of the pulverized-coal products from the impact-type unit pulverizer and the regular coal-plant installation. [ ] It was definitely proved that this size and type of unit pulverizer could not furnish sufficient coal of proper fineness to give smelting results comparable to that obtained with the regular coal-pulverizing plant. The coal from this unit pulverizer was so coarse that it did not ignite or burn properly and thus did not produce the proper heat for efficient smelting. During the latter part of 1929 and the early part of 1930, experimental work was conducted with a 7-ft. 0-in. by 48-in. Hardinge conical ball-mill coal-grinding unit, which was installed alongside a furnace in the reverberatory building. Results obtained from the test run indicated that this unit would furnish sufficient coal of proper fineness for good smelting.

Jan 1, 1945

By G. R. Brophy, A. J. Miller

The Grossmann principle1 for the calculation of hardenability of steel from composition is attractive because of its simplicity. It postulates that the hardenability of a steel for any particular grain size may be expressed in terms of an ideal critical diameter, which is the product of an ideal critical diameter for a "pure" iron-carbon base multiplied by a succession of factors for each element of composition contained, including the incidentals. It infers that the multiplying factor for a given quantity of an element is constant for all combinations of composition. Gross-mann has stated that in the great majority of cases the experimental values of hardenability are found to be well within 10 per cent of the calculated values. The validity of the scheme has been confirmed in principle by Crafts and Lamont2,3 and by Kramer et al.4 Their results differ from the original in the magnitude of the effect of some elements but, since they accepted the product concept and followed its direction, it is to be ex~ected that similar results would be obtained. Crafts and Lamont, in their second Paper, recognized that the factor relations for manganese and nickel were not continuously linear, but beyond certain critical amounts increase sharply. Austin, Van Note and Prater6 demonstrated nonlinear relations between hardenability and alloy contents. Their curves for chromium, silicon, manganese and nickel were all convex upward to show decreasing incremental effects. They concluded that Grossmann's factors under-evaluate the hardening effect of low percentage additions of these elements, and overevaluate the larger additions. More recently W. Stevens has found that the factor method fails when applied to complex steels containing two or three principal alloying elements other than carbon. Multiplying factors derived from his results bear a complex relation to composition and are not constant for a given amount of an element as the base composition varies. C. A. Liedholm7 found that, using either the Grossmann or the Crafts-Lamont multiplying factor values, not only were the relative hardenabilities of two heats of S.A.E. 6130 chromium-vanadium steel

Jan 1, 1947

By A. J. Miller, G. R. Brophy

The Grossmann principle1 for the calculation of hardenability of steel from composition is attractive because of its simplicity. It postulates that the hardenability of a steel for any particular grain size may be expressed in terms of an ideal critical diameter, which is the product of an ideal critical diameter for a "pure" iron-carbon base multiplied by a succession of factors for each element of composition contained, including the incidentals. It infers that the multiplying factor for a given quantity of an element is constant for all combinations of composition. Gross-mann has stated that in the great majority of cases the experimental values of hardenability are found to be well within 10 per cent of the calculated values. The validity of the scheme has been confirmed in principle by Crafts and Lamont2,3 and by Kramer et al.4 Their results differ from the original in the magnitude of the effect of some elements but, since they accepted the product concept and followed its direction, it is to be ex~ected that similar results would be obtained. Crafts and Lamont, in their second Paper, recognized that the factor relations for manganese and nickel were not continuously linear, but beyond certain critical amounts increase sharply. Austin, Van Note and Prater6 demonstrated nonlinear relations between hardenability and alloy contents. Their curves for chromium, silicon, manganese and nickel were all convex upward to show decreasing incremental effects. They concluded that Grossmann's factors under-evaluate the hardening effect of low percentage additions of these elements, and overevaluate the larger additions. More recently W. Stevens has found that the factor method fails when applied to complex steels containing two or three principal alloying elements other than carbon. Multiplying factors derived from his results bear a complex relation to composition and are not constant for a given amount of an element as the base composition varies. C. A. Liedholm7 found that, using either the Grossmann or the Crafts-Lamont multiplying factor values, not only were the relative hardenabilities of two heats of S.A.E. 6130 chromium-vanadium steel

Jan 1, 1947

By George A. Macready

Trinidad, British West Indies, is an island near the north coast of South America, situated between latitudes 10" and 11" N., and opposite the numerous outlets of the Orinoco River Delta. It is separated from Venezuela by the Gulf of Paria (salt water) and straits over 5 mi. (8 km.) wide. The area of the island is approximately 1750 sq. mi. (453,-250 hectares) and the population is approximately 400,000. The climate is tropical with an annual rainfall of from 45 to 60 in. (114 to 152 cm.). The oil fields consist of several units, or fields, located in the southern half of the island. Approximately 90 per cent. of the total production has been yielded by fields situated within 7 mi. (11.3 km.) of the famous asphalt lake and on the southwest peninsula. The most important producing fields, or units, are the following, which are shown on the accompanying map: Brighton, or Pitch Lake Field, operated by the Trinidad Lake Petroleum Co., Ltd., is situated beside the famous Pitch Lake; it even encroaches on the lake. Vessigny Field, operated by the Trinidad Lake Petroleum Co., Ltd., is situated 2 mi. (3.2 km.) south of Pitch Lake. Lot One Field, operated by the Petroleum Development Co., Ltd., the United British Oilfields of Trinidad, Ltd., and Stollmeyer, Ltd., is situated 3 mi. south of Pitch Lake upon Lot One of Morne 1'Enfer Forest Reserve and adjoining properties. Parry Lands Field, operated by the United British Oilfields of Trinidad, Ltd., and the Petroleum Development Co., Ltd., is situated 31/2 mi. south of Pitch Lake on Lot Three of Morne 1'Enfer Forest Reserve and adjoining properties. Point Fortin Field, operated by the United British Oilfields of Trinidad, Ltd., is situated at Point Fortin, 6 mi. southwest of Pitch Lake. Fyzabad Field, operated by Trinidad Leaseholds, Ltd., is situated several miles southwest of Fyzabad Village and 6 mi. south-southeast of Pitch Lake. Barracpore Field, operated by Trinidad Leaseholds, Ltd., is situated several miles south of San Fernando and 15 mi. (24.14 km.) east of Pitch Lake.

Jan 1, 1921

By B. Bryan

The tank car price of gasoline today is controlled by oil in the ground, rather than by stocks of gasoline or methods of refining. Previous to the commercial cracking of fuel oil, there was a normal and continuous relation between gasoline stocks, consumption and prices. From the beginning of the new cracking era in 1923 to the summer of 1926 there was a changing relationship, growing toward a correlation between the potential gasoline in storage and the price of gasoline. Since the development of large reserves of shutin production in Wyoming, California, Seminole, West Texas and Venezuela, the relationship between stocks of gasoline and gasoline prices has disappeared. The extreme depression of the Group 3 price can only be accounted for by oil which is not being produced but which we fear may be produced at any time. In Fig. 1, the curve of gasoline stocks is simply stocks of finished gasoline. The curve of potential gasoline is made by taking 40 per cent. of all stocks except gasoline, kerosene and lubricants, adding to that stocks of finished gasoline and dividing the sum by total gasoline con-sumption to get the months' supply of gasoline at the current rate of consumption. The price curve is the lower figure given by the National Petroleum News for the first quoted date of each month, with the price scale reversed. Stocks of potential gasoline have decrrased from 17 months' supply at the peak of 1924 to a low of 7 months' supply during the past summer, yet the low immediately precedes the lowest price for gasoline since it was a waste product. The tendency of the price curve to parallel the curve of potential supply is quite pronounced until the summer of 1926, since which time they have abruptly separated. The curve of gasolinct stocks is equally remarkable in relation to price when it is considered that total consumption for the year 1927 is almost exactly twice that of 1924. Clearly a new factor has been introduced. There is no possible factor to account for this distortion except known reserves of oil in ground storage, and therefore, until such time as the Bureau of Mines or the

Jan 1, 1928

By A. A. Mathews

During the past year (1967-68), there have been many instances of either partial or complete failure of a tunnel-support system. It looks like the art is in a pretty sad state, but as long as we permit the field of tunnel design to remain basically an art, that's about what we can expect. The application of scientific principles to tunnel design involves much more than assigning values to a series of factors in an equation. I am reminded of the case where the engineer calculated that steel ribs with struts were required to support a horseshoe-shaped tunnel in firm ground. The contractor had driven several hundred feet without installing the struts when the engineer visited the job. When he was informed that the struts had been left out, he fled the tunnel in alarm. As one authority has so aptly put it, "There is far too much calculating and too little observing." Initially, one might think of a tunnel support as a structural member, such as a strut or arch which is installed in order to support some definite load. Similarly, a tunnel lining might be considered as a treatment of the interior surface of the tunnel in order to produce desired aesthetic, hydraulic, or architectural results, or to serve a protective function. Actually, many linings, such as a concrete lining, serve a dual purpose and support a load as well as satisfy other requirements. Not too many years ago a tunnel, during the driving or excavating stage, was considered to be either supported or unsupported. In recent years, however, several techniques have been developed, which by helping the tunnel to support itself, permit the elimination of separate structural support. Since these techniques in many cases actually become a substitute for the conventional types of supports and linings, a state-of-the-art review would hardly be complete without including them for consideration. Thus, for the purpose of this discussion, we shall define tunnel supports as any system or technique which effectively maintains the integrity of the tunnel opening. In their chapters, both Jacobs (No. 6) and Lippold (No. 7) pointed out how support systems have advanced from timber supports to steel supports

Jan 1, 1970

By R. E. H. Pomeroy

THE statistical data given in this paper are taken from the actual performance of the No. 2 reverberatory furnace of the Nevada Consolidated Copper Co., Me Gill, Nev., for a period of four months, from April to July, 1914. The principal furnace dimensions are: Length, 132 ft. ½ in. at the skim-line level; average width, 18 ft., 10 in. at the skim-line level. The roof is 7 ft. above the skim-line level at the firing end. The average area in the uptake flue is 36 sq. ft., and the area above the skim line under the vulcatory arch is 24.3 sq. ft. Fig. 1 shows a diagrammatic plan and sectional elevation of this furnace. The furnace is equipped with two 400-b.h.p. Stirling waste-heat boilers set in parallel. California crude petroleum is used for fuel and has a specific gravity of 16.5° B., flashing in open test at 199° F. The oil is heated to about 200° F. in a steam heater before going to the burners, requiring about 9 b.h.p. per furnace day to heat it from the line temperature to the burning temperature. Measurement is made by oil meter, checked daily by reservoir readings. The oil is fed by gravity (34 lb. static pressure) to seven low-pressure blast burners of the Steptoe type (Fig. 2). The blast for these burners is supplied at about 40-oz. pressure by a motor-driven Connersville blower of 42 cu. ft. capacity per revolution. The air supplied by the blower through the burners for atomizing the oil amounts to about 10 per cent. of the theoretical air necessary for complete combustion of the oil. The remainder of the necessary air enters the furnace through the burner openings in the firing wall. No checker holes are provided, and the charge holes in the roof are equipped with slide gates and "dog houses? to minimize air leakages. The combustion of the fuel, as shown by gas analysis at the front of the furnace, is practically complete, the carbon monoxide in the gases being less than 0.5 per cent.

Jan 2, 1915

By Ralph Sweetser

AT the joint session of Blast Furnace and Open Hearth Committees, April 7, 1937, at Birmingham, the subject of the quality of basic open-hearth pig iron was so well presented and discussed from so many different viewpoints that it was the general opinion that progress had been made and that such meetings were conducive to the advancement of the art of making pig iron of the right quality for the open-hearth man to produce the most satisfactory quality of steel. It was agreed that there is a decided differentiation between the chemical analysis of pig iron and the "quality" of pig iron. Paul J. McKim said that open-hearth furnace operators frequently make refer-ence to certain types of iron as "bad iron," "dirty iron," "cold metal,' etc., claiming that when using these irons, although they are within specified chemical analysis, it is impossible to produce quality steel. Mr. McKim gave a list of the suggested causes of those "certain types" of bad irons that have a thoroughly respectable analysis but a thoroughly disreputable character. Another open-hearth man, P. A. Maclsaac, of Nova Scotia, said that: The effects of iron flint is below standard in analysis or in that mysterious property called quality, are well known to all open-hearth operators. It has been shown that iron of this type results in the production of steels on which the rejections of finished product, run high. What is to be done about it? I would say that the burden of producing high-quality iron should be placed squarely on the shoulders of the blast-furnace man, even as that of making good steel is shouldered by the open-hearth luau. It is the purpose of this paper to bring out into the open this 'mysteri-ous property called quality"; that is, in those "certain types" of basic pig iron that make it impossible to produce quality steels; and at the same time to point the way for the blast-furnace man to be able to shoulder the burden that Mr. MacIsaac and all other open-hearth men and foundry-men have placed upon him.

Jan 1, 1938

By Gerald Sherman

IN the southern field of the anthracite region of Pennsylvania, many of the coal seams dip at angles of 40° to 50° from the horizontal. For transportation purposes, "tunnels" are driven across the coal measures and, occasionally, "rock gangways," beside the seams and parallel with them. The use of gangways driven in country rock appears to be increas-ing, as they avoid the maintenance' of long gangways in coal, which eventually are driven to the colliery boundaries, and permit mining from a number of intermediate blocks without interference. The rock consists of slates or sandstones of moderate hardness, which may range into very hard, highly siliceous, fine-grained conglomerates. In this distinctly bedded formation,' the direction of the heading, whether parallel with or across the structure, makes it necessary to distribute the drill holes in a different pattern to break the ground, but does not change loading conditions. In 1932, practically all the mucking was done by hand, and it was the established custom to use four men on two drills for drilling and breaking the ground, and five for loading it, out. A driver and mule was needed in addition, to assemble the rock cars at a siding or branching track in the rear, pending their final disposal. This might occupy the driver's whole time, or if the length of haul were short, he might be able to do other useful work. It was thought possible in 1932 to reduce the cost of driving such headings in rock by mechanical loading, and to investigate this subject a scraper loader was used in a section of tunnel then being driven. Opera-tions while driving 195 ft. of this tunnel using a scraper loader were care-fully observed. Time studies were made of the loading, and records made of the routine of breaking ground, but not in such detail. Tunnels or gangways in the colliery are 7 ft. high above the rails, by 10 ft. wide, which requires a minimum of 8 ft. in height, broken to allow for rails and ties. This cross section is of sufficient size to permit the use of any one of several types of power loaders, but for this demonstration if was found most convenient to use a scraper loader.

Jan 1, 1936

By L. O. Howard

The practice of using acid-lined converters at the plant of the Old Dominion, Copper Mining & Smelting Co. was discontinued early in January, 1913, and replaced by basic-lined converters. The new equipment consists of one electrically operated 12-ft. upright converter stand and two basic-lined shells for same. These shells are provided with twenty-four 1 1/4-in. tuyeres. The mouths are 5 ft. in diameter. Owing to the fact that there is no bedding system or other large storage capacity between the mine and the smelter, the furnaces must handle as fast as produced ore and concentrates, which may vary considerably from day to day, both in tonnage and copper content. Consequently the converter is often crowded to its utmost capacity by the frequent fluctuations in the daily matte supply. From the foregoing, it will be seen that in no way can the 'converter be favored by running light charges or by transferring to it from other stands in operation. Neither can it regularly be allowed to cool between blows, and only occasionally can it be run at as low a temperature as might be wished. No copper precipitate or other foreign material high in copper is available to help out the tonnage. Repairs and alterations or the removal of defective tuyeres must wait until such time as a slight falling off in.the matte supply allows the converting operations to ease up. These variable conditions all combine to interfere with the systematic operating of the converter. The first 12-ft. shell was blown in on Jan. 6, 1913, and ran until June 27, 1913, when it was removed to patch the brick. A record of operations covering this period follows: Shell No. 1. First Campaign, Jan. 6,to June 27, 1913 Commenced blowing............................Jan. 6, 1913. Taken off stand for patching.....................June 27, 1913. Total blowing time..........................2,689 hr. 40 min. Total number of, blows made.............................. 664 Average time of blow............................ 4 hr. 3 min. Tons matte charged.................................. 18,157 Average copper content of matte................ 43.9 per cent. Average time blowing one ton. copper................ 22.5 min. Total copper made............................... 7,250 tons

Jan 1, 1915

By Valentin Garfias

ALTHOUGH Mexico still ranks second in importance as produce for petroleum, the output in 1924 was 7 ½ per cent. less than in 1923 and 30 per cent. less than the peak production of 1921. The decrease may be partly accounted for by labor troubles and revolutionary activities early in the year, although undoubtedly the main factor was the continuous rise of the salt-water level in the South Fields, causing a decline of 24,000,000 bbl. in the production of light oil. Since the middle of 1923, the production of heavy crude has been greater than that of the lighter grade and, in 1924, the output of heavy crude was 2 ½ times that-of the light oil. DEVELOPMENT Drilling operations in the Mexican fields were probably more active in 1924 than in any other year, the greatest activity taking place in the Cacalilao and neighboring fields; toward the end of the year there was an added number of wells drilling in wildcat areas. The number of wells drilled in proved territory was almost twice that of the previous year, the increase taking place in the heavy-oil fields north of Panuco, as only 78 of the 710 wells completed were drilled in the Southern Fields. The percentage of successful completions decreased from 45 per cent., during 1923, to about 38 per cent., during 1924; there was also a noticeable decrease in the average flush production of the new wells. It is interesting to note that notwithstanding the increased drilling activity, the total production declined over 10,000,000 barrels. In the heavy-oil district, 632 wells were completed but only 231, or 36 ½ per cent., were commercially productive. The develop-ment in the Cacalilao area reached its peak in April and May, or about the time the first serious salt-water encroachments took place. Development in the old Panuco and Topila fields was more active than during the previous year, although the salt-water level continued to rise, the high price of crude making such development advisable especially for companies having to protect large-investments.

Jan 3, 1925

By Wm. Hamilton Merritt

IN this paper, which I have the honor to submit to the Institute, it is my intention to treat especially of that part of the North Staffordshire field which converges to a long tongue in the neighborhood of Congleton, and which includes the villages of New Chapel, Ford Green, Norton, Biddulph, Bradley Green, Gillow Heath, and the immediate vicinity. My object is not so much to give a minute description of the geology or systems of mining and smelting, as by a general review, some idea of the extraordinary facilities for the production of excellent iron, which have enabled this district to maintain its position more successfully than any of its rivals against the late depression in trade. The North Staffordshire coal field has the Cheshire and Lancashire fields some thirty-five miles to the north, those of Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire forty miles to the east, those of South Staffordshire and Shropshire, about thirty miles to the south, and the Denbighshire and Flintshire fields some forty miles to the west. It is highly probable that the coal continues under the new red sandstone to the Western and Southern fields as the dips on both sides, and absence of large faults, make it impossible to come to any other conclusion. In a section of this coal field, from Chatterly to Whitfield, thirty-two workable seams of coal are shown, of an aggregate thickness of 130 feet, varying from 2 feet 6 inches to 7 feet, and thirteen seams of ironstone, 24 feet, averaging from 2 to 4 feet. All of these seams have been minutely described in a paper by Mr. Charles J. Homer, read in 1875 before the British Iron and Steel Institute. In the northern part, to which I especially wish to direct your attention, the beds lie in a V-shaped basin, the underlying millstone grit and Yoredale rocks rising and forming escarpments on either side of the valley containing the coal. Throughout this district, at the outcrop of the coal, there are indications of old workings. A shaft 4 to 5 feet in diameter reaches the coal at about 14 yards from the surface, and from it the coal has

Jan 1, 1880

By Oliver B. Knight

The producing formation in the South Field, or "Golden Lane" structure of Mexico, is a buried ridge of reef limestone of Comanchean age overlain unconformably with sediments of Upper Cretaceous, Eocene and Oligocene. The structure extends in a long sweeping arc, with the convex side toward the west, from San Geronimo, Vera Cruz, to San Isidro, south of the Tuxpam River, which it crosses at the town of Alamo. It is 52 miles long and averages 3/4 mile in width. The surface of the producing formation of El Abra limestone consists of a series of minor parallel highs which are separated longitudinally by synclinal troughs and laterally by structural saddles. The presence of these highs has been of utmost importance in the development of the field, especially in recent years when the salt-water level has risen above the synclines and confined the oil to the isolated highs. In many cases, faulty information and interpretation of the subsurface has resulted in drilling costly dry holes and salt-water wells. Development The development of the Golden Lane was started by the Mexican Eagle Oil Co. in 1906. San Diego No. 3, usually known as Dos Bocas, the first producing well on the structure, was completed on July 4, 1908. This well came in unexpectedly for an estimated daily production of 129,000 bbl., and, as the casing was not properly set, the well flowed wild into the Tamiahua Lagoon, causing a loss of several million barrels of oil. In flowing wild the well formed a crater which covers an area of 48 acres, out of which salt water and small quantities of gas still flow. Casiano No. 2, the Huasteca Petroleum Co., which yielded 200 bbl. of oil daily, and which was completed in November, 1909, was the next producing well to be drilled on the structure. In 1910, the same company completed Casiano No. 7, with an initial production of 50,000 bbl. daily, and Casiano No. 1, which produced 200 bbl. daily. In the same year, the Mexican Eagle Oil Co. completed its Potrero del Llano wells 1, 2 and 4, with initial productions of 500, 400 and 100,000 bbl. respectively. From 3910 to the latter part of 1919, development proceeded

Jan 1, 1931