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By Rose L. Ballard

This chapter summarizes data on crude nonfuel mineral production for the United States, its island possessions, and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. Included also are tables that show the principal nonfuel mineral commodities exported from and imported into the United States, and that compare world and U.S. mineral production. The detailed data from which these tables were derived are contained in the individual commodity chapters of volume I and in the State chapters of volume II of this edition of the Minerals Yearbook. Although crude mineral production may be measured at any of several stages of extraction and processing, the stage of measurement used in this chapter is what is normally termed "mine output." It usually refers to minerals or ores in the form in which they are first extracted from the ground, but customarily includes the output from auxiliary processing at or near the mines.

Jan 1, 1982

This chapter summarizes data on crude mineral production for the United States, its island possessions, and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. Included also are tables that show the principal mineral commodities exported from and imported into the United States and that compare world and U.S. mineral production. The detailed data from which these tables were derived are contained in the individual commodity chapters of volume I and in the State chapters of volume n of this edition of the Minerals Yearbook. Although crude mineral production may be measured at any of several stages of extraction and processing, the stage of measurement used in this chapter is what is normally termed "mine output!' It usually refers to minerals or ores in the form in which they are first extracted from the ground, but customarily includes the production of auxiliary processing at or near the mines.

Jan 1, 1979

By Isaac A. Zlochower, Michael J. Sapko, Ronald S. Conti

This paper describes a U.S. Bureau of Mines investigation of large-scale coal dust explosions in an experimental mine using a high speed electro pneumatic mechanism for the rapid grab-sampling of gases and dusts. This technique enables the monitoring of pyrolysis and charring in fuel dust particles, and the collection of gaseous combustion products, in both large and small-scale explosions. Data obtained from full-scale dust explosion tests at the Bureau of Mines Lake Lynn Test facility show the following: Rapid sampling appears to "freeze" the burned gas compositions at the flame temperature values. Gas samples taken entirely in the flame zone consist of pyrolysis and combustion products with very low residual oxygen. The particles collected in the flame zone show signs of extensive pyrolysis and charring. Measurements of gas concentrations and particle flame temperatures suggest that char burning may have occurred in the flame zone.

By John J. Mulligan

Ear Mountain is an isolated mountain mass that rises abruptly from the coastal plain on the northwest shore of the Seward Peninsula. Geologically it resembles the more accessible Brooks Mountain and Cape Mountain areas to the southwest, being composed of a granitic core surrounded and partly capped by metamorphosed sediments. The occurrence of lode- and placer-tin deposits in this area has been known since the early 1900's, when the Seward Peninsula region was prospected extensively for both gold and tin. The Federal Bureau of Mines investigated the tin deposits in the Ear Mountain area during the 1953 and 1954 field seasons. The objectives were to delimit the areas in which tin minerals occur, as a guide to future prospecting, and to determine the amount of tin in the known prospects. Work by the Bureau of Mines included both placer and lode sampling.

Jan 1, 1959

By N. A. C. Smith

During the past, six, years, the Bureau of Mines has made and. published several hundred analyses of typical crude oils and 'has developed a system of interpreting the analyses and of classifying crudes. This system is presented here with. It is apparently equate for classifying crude oils into four main groups and has also been found very convenient in studying the geological relationships between crude oils, and the probable refinery yields of valuable products from them. Crude petroleum is morn to be a very complex substance. An analytical statement of its properties must, therefore, consist of two distinct parts, - first, the report of the results of the determinations made by the analyst in the laboratory, - second, the proper arrangement, classification and interpretation of these results so that the analysis, as a mole, will indicate the meaning- and the relative- importance of the essential characteristics of the oil.

Jan 1, 1927

By G. E. McClelland

As part of its mission to assure an adequate domestic supply of metals essential to the Nation's welfare, the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, investigated a particle agglomeration technique as a means for improving the flow of leaching solution through heaps of clayey or finely crushed, low-grade, gold-silver ores. Bench-and pilot-scale experiments showed that the percolation rate of cyanide leaching solution was markedly enhanced by mixing the ore with a portland cement binder, moistening the mixture, and mechanically agglomerating and aging the feed prior to heap building and leaching. The rate of gold and silver recovery markedly increased because of the increased, uniform percolation of leaching solution through the agglomerated feed. The use of concentrated cyanide solution instead of water during the agglomeration procedure decreased the leaching time required to obtain maximum recovery. Results of bench-and pilot-scale experiments are discussed.

Jan 1, 1981

By A. Gene Collins

During recent years the interest in trace and minor constituents of oil-field water, petroleum, and their associated reservoir rocks has increased. The metals copper, nickel, lead, manganese, iron, zinc, and cadmium are not determined routinely in oilfield brine analyses. Determination of these metals and subsequent correlation of these data should yield information to aid 1n the interpretation of the origin of different waters. The methods of analyzing oilfield waters have several potential applications: (1) Aiding in the search for petroleum; (2) identifying sources of intrusive brines; (3) controlling corrosion; (4) controlling produced water; increasing knowledge of the geology of subsurface formations; (5) identifying incompatible waters in waterflooding operations; (6) increasing the knowledge of the flow of oil, gas, and water in underground formations; and (7) aiding in the identification and location of valuable mineral reserves. Some brines contain enough valuable minerals to be recovered commercially.

Jan 1, 1962

GLOSSARY Acid- and toxic-forming materials. Rock or coal layers containing significant amounts of pyrite or other minerals which, if exposed by coal mining, will cause acid or toxic drainage to occur when acted upon by air and water. Add mine drainage. Any water with a pH less s than 6.0 draining from a coal mine. Water is often orange-colored because of the presence of oxidized iron. Adit. An underground mine entry at sites where coal seams are exposed at ground level. Apple core. A complete hilltop (360°) left exposed by not backfilling the highwall. Approximate original contour. The surface configuration achieved by backfilling and grading the mined area so that be reclaimed land closely resembles the general pre-mining surface configuration and blends into and complements the drainage pattern of the surrounding terrain. Area mining. A surface mining method that is carried on in level to gently rolling topography on relatively large tracts of land. Active area mine pits may be several miles long. Arid and semiarid regions. Lands, generally west t of We 100% meridian, where water use by native vegetation equals or exceeds that supplied by natural precipitation, and rainfall is insufficient to support agriculture. Annual precipitation is normally 20 inches or less. Auger mining. A mining technique often used by surface mine operators when the overburden becomes too for the coal to be mined economically using traditional surface mining methods. Large-diameter (usually 2'-4') horizontal holes are drilled as much as 300 feet into We vertical Me of the coal bed by an auger. Like a bit used for boring holes in wood, coal augers consist of a cutting head with a screw-like extension. As the auger turns, the head breaks up the coal and the screw carries it back into a conveyor that loads it directly into a truck. Backfilling. The operation of refilling an excavation using material removed during the mining process. Bench. The level or flat working area at the base of the highwall that is excavated between the exposed coal seam and the original surface of the ground. Bucket wheel excavator. A continuous-digging machine that uses a rotating vertical wheel with buckets for large-scale stripping and excavating. Cessation Order. Order to cease mining issued to a coal operator by the regulatory authority due to severity of violations, Contemporaneous reclamation. Restoration of mined land that occurs as soon as practical after coal removal. Contour mining. A mining method commonly used in eastern mountainous topography where coal is removed in a narrow strip around the hillside. The extent of the cut into the hillside is determined by the depth of overburden at the highwall compared with the thickness of the coal seam. Daylighting. A term used to describe a surface mining procedure that exposes abandoned underground coal mine workings to enable removal of the remaining coal. Daylighting is followed by land reclamation. Dragline. An excavating machine, usually used in large, flat areas, that drags a bucket (which holds up to 220 cubic yards of material) toward the machine by cables, loads it with spoil, and then hoists it wit a boom up to 350 feet long, allowing the machine to excavate wide benches by depositing the spoil hundreds of feet away from the highwall. Grading. The process of smoothing the disturbed areas of the mine site, after the coal is removed, to closely approximate the pre¬mining terrain. Haul road. Any road constructed, improved, maintained, or used by mine operators and located within the permit area. Head-of-hollow fill. See "valley rill." Highwall. The cliff-like excavated face of exposed overburden and coal in a surface mine. Hydroseeding. Planting of seed mixed in a water medium. Water, mulch, lime, fertilizer, and seed are blended and sprayed onto regarded soil.

Jan 1, 1992

By X. Shi, N. S. Dala, V. Vallaythan

"Cellular damage induced by silica dust is known to be associated with increased fragility and destabilization or destruction of the cell membranes. The mechanism by which silica dust effects biological membranes is still unknown. Using the ESR spin-trap methodology, we find that hydroxyl radicals are generated in aqueous suspensions of freshly ground silica. The amount of the radicals generated depends on the extent of grinding and ""freshness"" of the dust. Using linoleic acid as a model lipid, we show that the silica dust causes lipid peroxidation via ·OH, 02-, or linoleic acid related radicals as intermediates. Catalase and superoxide dismutase inhibit the formation of these radicals. The results suggest that free radicals associated with freshly ground silica and the related lipid peroxidation of the memberanes may be the starting point of the silicotic processes.INTRODUCTIONDespite considerable-effort over the years, the mechanism by which the quartz particles exert their toxic action on cells and the process(es) by which these actions progress to fibrosis are still not fully understood (1,2). It is generally thought, nevertheless, that the interaction of the quartz particles with the cell membranes is the starting point of the silicotic process (3). We felt that the mechanism of the membrane damage by quartz might involve oxygenated free radicals because (a) a suspension of quartz particles in contact with alveolar macrophages has been reported.(4,5) to initiate an enhancement of lipid peroxidation, defined broadly as the ;oxidative deterioration of polyunsaturated components of lipids, and (b) hydroxyl (·OH) radicals are known to be capable of peroxidation by abstracting hydrogen atoms from cell-membrane lipids (6) and initiating lipid peroxidation in lysosomal membranes (7). Moreover it is known that exposure of cell membranes, fatty acids and unsaturated food oils to ionizing radiation, which generates ·OH. radicals, causes rapid peroxidation (6). Earlier studies o~ the aqueous chemistry of quartz suspensions have reported detection of HzOz (8), implicating the formation of ·OH radicals as transient species, but, we are not aware of any report of the detection of ·OH radicals in quartz suspensions and this provided the motivation for the present undertaking. Since it is known that, because of their high reactivity (hence short life time) in aqueous media, the ·OH radicals cannot be detected via electron spin resonance (ESR) directly (9,10), we have used ESR combined with the spin-trap methodology (9) for studying the •OH formation."

Jan 1, 1988

By J. A. Holmes

As part of its investigation of methods of increasing the efficiency of fuel resources, the Bureau of Mines is continuing the study of the general problems involved in the economic use of fuels in gas pro- ducers that were carried on by the technologic branch of the United States Geological Survey. In the course of this study many inci- dental problems of prime importance have demanded consideration. Among them is the determination, under practically constant con- ditions, of the duration of gas-producer tests necessary to reduce the possible error to a minimum. A discussion of this proper length of test period forms the first part of this bulletin. An attempt to dispel some of the uncertainties that arise in an investigation or to account for some of the minor phenomena often necessitates a systematic and careful study of certain chemical, ther- modynamic, or physical laws, or a combination of these, which in turn may result in information or conclusions of great value. Fur- thermore, seemingly unimportant observations often prove to bear directly upon the design, construction, or manipulation of the machine under test. In attempts to improve the gas producer considerable attention has been given by manufacturers to such questions as fixing or isolating the combustible components of the tar, utilizing the waste heat of the producer for the generation of the steam required by the plant, apply- ing the suction principle to bituminous coal and other tarry fuels, and many allied subjects. Little study, apparently, has been given to the physical-chemical conditions most suitable to the formation of hydro- gen and of carbon monoxide, with a view to regulating the percentages of these gases in generators using fuels other than anthracite coal or charcoal. An attempt was made to introduce such investigations when the operations of the government coal-testing plant began at the Louisi- ana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis in 1904, but owing to adverse conditions these problems were abandoned until the plant was trans- ferred to Norfolk in 1907. The delay in beginning this line of inves- tigations, together with the short testing season at Norfolk, limit the second part of this report to preliminary physical-chemical studies, which, however, were sufficiently significant to warrant careful ex- amination pending more complete researches, which are being carried on at the station located in Pittsburg.

Jan 1, 1911

By D. Harrington, B. W. Dyer

"One of the products of the activities of the United States Chemical Warfare Service is a simple device and method for nearly instantaneous determination of small quantities of carbon monoxide in air. Since the war, this device has been diverted to commercial uses, and is now being marketed in connection with rapid determination of the comparatively small but dangerous quantities of CO, which may be found in garages, in sewers, about blast furnaces, etc. Also, it probably has a definite field of use in both coal and metal mines in connection with fires and explosions, as well as in confined places after firing of explosives) the latter applica-tion being of especial importance in metal mining.The device as marketed is readily portable, being small and light enough to carry in a coat pocket of medium size. In operation, a sample of the air mixture is drawn into a small rubber bulb, then forced through a small glass tube filled with certain chemicals upon which CO has the effect of changing the original color from gray or white to shades of green, the deepness of the green determining the percentage of CO in the air. A color scale is attached for purpose of comparison and determination of CO percentage. Only a few minutes are consumed in obtaining the result, all work being done on the ground.The exact effect of minute quantities (up to 1/10 of 1 percent) of CO on the human system is somewhat uncertain, and much research has been and is being done to obtain definite data on this point. It is, however, definitely known that in air containing more than 1/10 of 1 percent CO men doing hard work are quickly and seriously affected. As the gas is tasteless, colorless and odorless, methods of determining the presence of both small and large quantities have been of much importance. Technical Paper 11 of the U. S. Bureau of Mines gives much data as to effect of CO on mice and canaries. It was found that mice show very little distress until the CO content is about 0.20 percent, but quickly succumb when that percentage is exceeded; canaries are somewhat more susceptible; they quickly show distress in as little as 0.15 percent 00, and soon collapse when that percentage is exceeded."

Jan 1, 1921

By Launa G. Mallett, Barbara Fotta

This report examines the effects of mining height on injury rates in U.S. underground nonlongwall bituminous coal mines, controlling for both the employment size of the mine and the mining methods. Using the mine-level employment and injury data reported to the Mine Safely and Health Administration, mines were stratified by average coal seam height (<43 in, 43-60 in, and >60 in) and by the average number of employees working at the mine (<20 employees, 20-49 employees, 50-99 employees, and >99 employees). To reduce the confounding effects of mining method on injury rates, mines using longwall mining methods were identified and excluded from analysis. The employment data show that as the mine size increases, the proportion of hours worked in low seams decreases substantially. Additionally, miners injured in small, low- scam mines arc, on average, younger and less experienced than those injured in large high-seam mines. Nonfatal disabling and fatal injury rates were computed within each category of employment size and seam height for the major types of accidents (ground falls, powered haulage equipment, machinery, handling materials, slips and falls, and hand tools). Our findings suggest that, regardless of the employment size, as mining height increases, miners are at increasingly higher risk of injury from accidents due to slips or falls and accidents involving shuttle cars and falls of ground. As mining height decreases, miners are at higher risk 01 injury from accidents involving roof bolting machines, load-haul-dump types of powered haulage equipment, personnel carriers, and powered haulage conveyors. On the other hand, regardless of the height of the coal seam, miners working in large underground mines had higher rates of injuries resulting from accidents involving handling materials and nonpowered hand tools, but lower rates of injury from accidents involving continuous mining machines and lower rates of fatal injuries from falls of supported and unsupported mine roof. Finally, miners working at small mines in low or medium seams are at higher risk of being fatally injured by a ljll of unsupported mine roof. These findings suggest the importance of&apos; considering the working height of the mine, as well as the employment size of the mining operation, when developing intervention strategies to reduce injury risk to underground coal miners. Results also identify the need to further explore how mining height contributes to the frequency and severity of injuries.

Jan 11, 1997

By D. Harrington, B. W. Dyer

"Two recent occurrences in Western metal mines in each of which 3 men were killed due to breathing fumes from explosives, have aroused keen interest among mining men not only as to the exact cause of such accidents, but also as to possible preventive measures.In sinking the forty five degree incline Marsh *haft near Burke, Idaho, on May 13, 1920, a round of holes containing about sixty pounds of 40 per cent gelatin explosive was blasted by the night shift upon leaving at 11:30 P.M. It was customary for the night shift to leave compressed air blowers open at bottom of abaft until the compressor was shut down slightly before midnight. Presumably this was not done on the night of the lath as the fumes were so heavy in the shaft bottom on the morning of the 14th that at about 8 o'clock, Superintendent Bergen and one of the shaft men, on reaching the shaft bottom, were overcome and fell from the bucket into the sump containing about six feet of water; and when two other men went down in the bucket a few minutes later to investigate, one also fell into the sump and the other was barely able to roach the shaft collar. The three bodies were later on recovered from the sump.At 400 P.M., June 10, 1920, at the Dominion Mine, Colville, Washington, a round of 11 holes containing about fifteen pounds of 60 per cent nitro¬glycerine explosive was blasted in a fifty degree raise about fifty feet above the main tunnel level by the shift going off for the night. in this mine it was the practice not to try to blow out the fumes until just before the shift went to work the next morning, Although no work was being done on the night shift, one of the raise men, curious to ascertain the effect of the shots, about 7:45 P.M., wandered into the mine (which was a tunnel only a few hundred feet in length), and was missed by one of his companions about an hour later. When three men tried to remove the body of the inquisitive miner, two of them were also overcome; ultimately these two and the first man were removed from the point at which all were asphyxiated, which was practically at the foot of themaise."

Jul 1, 1920

By G. B. Fritts, A. C. Moschetti

"INTRODUCTION The act of Congress establishing the Bureau of Mines in 1910 delegated to the Bureau, as one of its principal duties and functions, the study of health and safety in the mineral industries with a view to devising and putting into operation means of conserving the health and safety of persons employed in the industries. One of the first health and safety activities of the Bureau of Mines was therefore organization of a trained force to promote instruction in first aid in the mineral industries. First-aid training has been an important activity of the Bureau of Mines since its establishment. The standard first-aid course requires a minimum of 15 hours of instruction and practice work. A person completing the initial training course is issued an engraved certificate and pocket card certificate; thereafter, only a pocket card certificate is issued for additional training.From 1910 to 1926 first aid was taught by trained Bureau of Mines employees; consequently, only a comparatively few persons were trained. In 1926, however, cooperative first-aid training was initiated, which provided the means to train the entire personnel of mines or plants within a short time in a single campaign. Many mines and plants have taken advantage of the cooperative plan, whereby keymen in a mine or plant, in addition to the initial training received, are given intensive training in first aid by a Bureau of Mines instructor. Those men who show an aptitude for teaching are selected as tentative provisional first-aid instructors. In order to qualify as a provisional instructor, a tentative instructor must, under the supervision of a Bureau of Mines instructor, train a class of at least six persons employed in the minerals industries in the standard Bureau of Mines course in first aid. After it has been determined that the class has been trained properly, a provisional first-aid instructor's pocket card certificate is issued to the class instructor. The first-aid instructor can renew his pocket card certificate each year by training or retraining at least six persons connected with the mineral industries to satisfactorily pass an examination given by a Bureau of Mines representative. After five yearly renewals of a provisional instructor's pocket card certificate, an engraved, permanent instructor's certificate and a permanent instructor's pocket card certificate are issued to the instructor."

Feb 1, 1955

By Liming Yuan

In order to reduce fire hazards caused by spontaneous combustion in longwall gob areas, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) study is being conducted by National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) to simulate the spontaneous heating of coal in longwall gob areas. A CFD model was first developed to model the spontaneous heating process in a two longwall panel district using a bleeder ventilation system with a stationary longwall face. The spontaneous heating is modeled as the low-temperature oxidation of coal in the gob using kinetic data obtained from previous laboratory-scale spontaneous combustion studies. Heat generated from coal oxidation is dissipated by convection and conduction, while oxygen and oxidation products are transported by convection and diffusion. CFD simulations were then conducted to model the spontaneous heating in longwall gob area with a bleederless ventilation system. A single longwall panel with a bleederless ventilation system was simulated. The effect of gob permeability on the spontaneous heating was also investigated.

Jan 1, 2009

By P. Comba

The U.S. Bureau of Mines investigated a hydrochloric (HC1)-calcium fluoride (CaF2) leaching procedure to treat domestic manganese (Mn)-bearing silicate resources. The proposed process is an alternative to high-temperature and energy-intensive extractive techniques. Single-stage leaching with a stoichiometric amount of HCl and a F-Mn mole ratio of 0.2 extracted 96 pct of the Mn when the leach conditions were 50° C, 3 h, and 35 pct solids. Ninety-eight percent of the Mn was extracted during countercurrent leaching at similar conditions. A process flowsheet was developed that incorporated HC1-Cab leaching, excess leach acid utilization, fluoride (F) recycle, and Mn recovery. When the domestic manganese silicate ore was processed, 98 pct of the Mn was extracted, 99 pct of the Cab was reclaimed, and a leach residue was produced that passed the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Extraction Procedure (EP) Test for nonhazardous waste.

Jan 1, 2010

By Harry E. Tufft

Data were obtained by the writer from a number of the large coul-mine operators in Illinois, on the consumption and cost of timber used in their mines and the quality of the timber now being used as compared with former years. This information supplemented by comparative date for previous years published in bulletins of the filinois Coal Mining Investigation series, and other sources, is presented below. This survey is part of a cooperative study with the . S. Forest Service, of the mine timber situation, with particular regard to the economies to be derived by better selection, preparation, and storage of timber, and especially treatment with preservatives to prolong the life. Geo. S. Rice, chief mining engineer of the J. S. Bureau of Mines, under whose general direction the work was done, gave valuable advice and criticism. R. B. Miller, State Forester, contributed helpful data which he had recent- ly obtained in an independent study of the mine-timber situation in Illinois.

Apr 1, 1923

By Paul T. Allsman

This paper gives the cost and describes the mining of 55 tons of nickel-bearing rock by hand methods from a prospect in southern Nevada, June 15, 1937, by the Mining Division of the Bureau of Mines. The geology, mineralogy, and problems related to future development also are discussed briefly. The main object was to obtain a 55-ton sample within the limited period during which funds were available; little time was available to make a first-hand detailed study of the possibility of commercial ore deposits being found. The sample was desired by the Metallurgical Division of the Bureau for experimental purposes at the Electro-Metallurgical Station at Boulder City, Nev. The term "ore" is used loosely in the following discussion to designate dike material containing nickel and copper, without consideration of its commercial value. ACKNOLEDGMENTS Material concerning the geology and mineralogy of the prospect and district as obtained from Geological Survey publications by Bancroft3/and Longwell4/.

Jan 1, 1938

By Edward Cogan

Equilibrium phase diagram studies of zirconium- rare earth metal alloys by the Bureau of Mines at its Albany Metallurgy Research Center prompted the development of a rapid gravimetric method for determining rare earths in zirconium in which the rare earths are absorbed from sulfuric acid solution of the alloy on a cation exchange resin . The sample in 10 percent H2SO4 is introduced into the column , the zirconium is eluted with 10 percent H2SO4 , and the rare earths are eluted with (NH4 )2SO4 solution and precipitated with NH4OH . A tracer technique was employed to determine the efficiency of the procedure . Y203 and europium 154 - 152 (Oak Ridge ) were added to 10 g of zirconium and taken through the entire procedure . Recovery averaged 97.6 percent on 0.002 μg europium in the rare earth fraction . Rare earths were determined in the range 0.10 to 90 percent .

Jan 1, 1964

By McHenry Mosier

This paper describes come mechanical raid electrical signal systems in common use in Metal-mine shafts, together with several distinctive systems that indicate or control the origin of the signal. The latter systems remove the hazard of the movement of the cage from one level in response to signals from another. Previous publications of the Bureau of Mines have covered several meritorious installations One of the best signal systems for deep shafts is at the Homestake mine4/. A successful installation of an induction system in the Lake Superior mining region permits signaling as well as telephoning from cages at rest or in motion5/. El Potosi mine uses a variation of the three-wire electric system6/. A mine in Utah has developed a system of the double trolly-wire type, in which the cage attendant may signal from a moving cage7/. At present no system of the sine-shaft signaling employing radio is available.

Jan 1, 1939