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By Thomas T., Read

THROUGHOUT the Colonial era, Philadelphia was easily , the leading city of North America, and it still held that position at the end of the period, with a population of about 25,000, though closely pressed by Boston, which had slightly over 20,000, and New York, which had nearly as many. It was the center of a region in which mineral industry was important. Thomas Rutter's bloomery, built in the Schuylkill valley in 1716, was quickly followed by many others, and during the Colonial period at least 20 blast furnaces, 45 forges, and iron- works of other types were built in eastern Pennsylvania, which easily led all the other colonies in iron manufacture. During the Revolutionary period others were erected as far west as Fort Loudon, in the Cumberland c alley.^ After 1800 the rapid development of the anthracite mining industry profoundly affected Philadelphia's, development, since transportation of the coal was then necessarily by water, and the streams of the anthracite . regions mostly flowed into either the Schuylkill or the Delaware Rivers. With an abundant near-by supply of coal and iron, with the seat of government, which had been there since 1774, and with a National Bank established there in 1791, one would have seemed safe in prophesying, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, that Philadelphia would permanently remain the leading city of the United States. Education in Philadelphia was at first wholly in the hands of the Quakers, who had established a "Public School" there in 1689, but in November 1739 George Whitefield, who had created a sensation in England by his preaching, though only 24 years old, passed through Philadelphia on his way to Georgia to found an orphan school there. He preached a series of sermons in Christ Church that were so disturbing to the established church that on Nov. 25 the Rev..Richard Peters (who was also Provincial

Jan 1, 1941

New York Meeting, October 16 and 17, 1913.-The One Hundred and Sixth meeting of the Institute for the reading and discussion of professional papers will be held in New York City, on Thursday and Friday, October 16 and 17, 1913. Headquarters will be at the Institute office in the Engineering Societies Building, 29 West 39th Street. The sessions will be held in one of the assembly rooms of the building. Because of the many valuable papers on iron and steel obtained with the assistance of the Iron and Steel Committee, which papers could not appropriately be presented and discussed at the Montana meeting, this October meeting of the Institute is held for the purpose of reading and discussing these papers, most of which will be printed and distributed in advance. The members of the following societies have been invited to attend the meeting, and several have accepted and declared their intention of taking part in the proceedings: American Society for Testing Materials, American Iron and Steel Institute, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, American Society of Civil Engineers, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, American Foundrymen's Association. The meeting will be conducted under the auspices of the Iron and Steel Committee, and the latest revised program of the proceedings will be found on page xi, under the notes of this Committee.

Jan 10, 1913

Jan 1, 1879

By J. P. Smith

DURING the winter of 1946 to 1947 potash operations in Germany, France and Spain were visited by the author. The U. S. Department of Commerce, through its Field Intelligence Agency Technical, sponsored the inspection of German properties by representatives of the American Potash Industry. Vast deposits of potash salts occur in the above-mentioned countries, and the production and marketing of these salts are important in their respective economies. Germany An area of some ten thousand square miles of north central Germany is underlain by lenses of potash salts interbedded with greater thicknesses of sodium chloride or common salt. These salt measures are relict deposits from the evaporation of an arm of the Zechstein (Permian) Sea which formerly covered northern Europe. During the peak year of 1940, Germany produced salts containing 1,860,000 tons of K,O and, next to coal, potash is its most important mineral raw material. The German deposits are found in the synclinal areas flanking the Flechtingen, Hartz Mountain and Thuringian uplifts, and, to the north they lie beneath the plains of Hannover. The regional dip of the salt measures is to the north, hence, lenses of potash found at depths of 500 to 1000 m* in the Two general depositional provinces of potash concentrations are recognized: (1) the main basin, and (2) the subsidiary basin. The main basin embraces the producing districts of Stassfurt, Sud Hartz, Halle, and Hannover-Braunschweig. From J. P. SMITH, Member AIME, is Clzief Geologist, U. S. Potash Co., Carlsbad, New Mexico. New York Meeting, February 1948. TP 2621 H. Discussion of this paper (2 copies) may be sent to Transactions AIME before Feb. 28, 1950. Manuscript received May 26, 1948. 40 to 45 pct of the German production comes from this basin. The Werra-Fulda district, producer of 50 pct or more of the German potash, lies in the subsidiary basin. Salt Stratigraphy: Five commercial potash zones or beds are recognized. The three beds present in the main basin are: The Stassfurt bed that occurs near the top of the older salt, and the Ronnenberg and Riedel beds in the younger salt occurring 200 to 300 m, respectively, above the Stassfurt bed. The Stassfurt bed is found over the entire main basin, while the Ronnenberg and Riedel are restricted to the Hannover area. Two potash beds occur in the Werra basin. These are the Thuringian, or lower bed and the Hessen or upper potash bed that occurs 60 m above. These beds lie 210 and 150 m, respectively, below the position of the Stassfurt bed, and are restricted to the Werra basin. The upper bed is 2.5 to 11.5 m in thickness, and the principal ores are hartsalz with varying thicknesses of carnallite. The lower bed averages 3 m in thickness, and contains hartsalz. The upper bed is presently being mined, and the

Jan 1, 1951

By J. P. Smith

DURING the winter of 1946 to 1947 potash operations in Germany, France and Spain were visited by the author. The U. S. Department of Commerce, through its Field Intelligence Agency Technical, sponsored the inspection of German properties by representatives of the American Potash Industry. Vast deposits of potash salts occur in the above-mentioned countries, and the production and marketing of these salts are important in their respective economies. Germany An area of some ten thousand square miles of north central Germany is underlain by lenses of potash salts interbedded with greater thicknesses of sodium chloride or common salt. These salt measures are relict deposits from the evaporation of an arm of the Zechstein (Permian) Sea which formerly covered northern Europe. During the peak year of 1940, Germany produced salts containing 1,860,000 tons of K,O and, next to coal, potash is its most important mineral raw material. The German deposits are found in the synclinal areas flanking the Flechtingen, Hartz Mountain and Thuringian uplifts, and, to the north they lie beneath the plains of Hannover. The regional dip of the salt measures is to the north, hence, lenses of potash found at depths of 500 to 1000 m* in the Two general depositional provinces of potash concentrations are recognized: (1) the main basin, and (2) the subsidiary basin. The main basin embraces the producing districts of Stassfurt, Sud Hartz, Halle, and Hannover-Braunschweig. From J. P. SMITH, Member AIME, is Clzief Geologist, U. S. Potash Co., Carlsbad, New Mexico. New York Meeting, February 1948. TP 2621 H. Discussion of this paper (2 copies) may be sent to Transactions AIME before Feb. 28, 1950. Manuscript received May 26, 1948. 40 to 45 pct of the German production comes from this basin. The Werra-Fulda district, producer of 50 pct or more of the German potash, lies in the subsidiary basin. Salt Stratigraphy: Five commercial potash zones or beds are recognized. The three beds present in the main basin are: The Stassfurt bed that occurs near the top of the older salt, and the Ronnenberg and Riedel beds in the younger salt occurring 200 to 300 m, respectively, above the Stassfurt bed. The Stassfurt bed is found over the entire main basin, while the Ronnenberg and Riedel are restricted to the Hannover area. Two potash beds occur in the Werra basin. These are the Thuringian, or lower bed and the Hessen or upper potash bed that occurs 60 m above. These beds lie 210 and 150 m, respectively, below the position of the Stassfurt bed, and are restricted to the Werra basin. The upper bed is 2.5 to 11.5 m in thickness, and the principal ores are hartsalz with varying thicknesses of carnallite. The lower bed averages 3 m in thickness, and contains hartsalz. The upper bed is presently being mined, and the

Jan 1, 1951

Born, March 28, 1853 Died July 23, 1916 On July 25, 1916, the Board of Directors adopted the following minute and directed that it be entered upon the records of the Board & published in the Bulletin of the Institute, and thereof be sent to the family of Mr. Kirchhoff: Charles Kirchhoff was one of the oldest, most widely known and most highly esteerned members of the American Institute of Mining Engineers. On his return in 1875 from a European course of study, to begin a highly successful professional career, he joined the Institute, then just commencing to acquire both national and international recognition. He became at once, and-for more than 40 years continued to be, its earnest , and active supporter, serving it as Manager, Councilor or Director for terms aggregating 9 years,-as Vice-President for 2 years, and twice as President for a year. During the critical period of the erection of the United Engineering Society's building, and the transfer of the Institute to permanent head-quarters therein, Mr. Kirchhoff was its efficient representative in the United Engineering Society, and on the Building Committee. In 1910, amid the congratulations of colleagues, employees, and innumerable friends, Mr. Kirchhoff retired from active business as Vice- President and General Manager of a great technical publishing company. Yet he sacrificed of his well-earned leisure yet one more year, to serve the Institute as President through 1911.

Jan 9, 1916

Jan 1, 1968

By H. Jehn

Like some other Pt-group metals palladium shows a low but considerable solid solubility of oxygen, which was found already from oxidation studies. The oxygen solid solubility of palladium in equilibrium with gaseous oxygen has been investigated at 900 - 1300 °C in oxygen (665 mbar) and air by gassing and analyzing polycrystalline samples. The 0-concentrations range from 40 to 90 ppm and decrease with rising temperature. The isobaric solubility can be represented by the least-squares fit log c0 = 0.5 log p02- 0.32 + 920/T (c0 in wt. ppm, p02 in mbar, T in K). The thermodynamic data of the exothermic solution reaction are calculated to ?H°= -17.6 kJ?mol-1 and ?S° -76.5 J?mol ? K-1. The behaviour of palladium in an oxygen atmosphere is characterized by the simultaneous reactions of the solution of oxygen in the metal and the formation and evaporation of volatile oxides besides the pure metal evaporation.

Jan 1, 1984

By AIME AIME

THE annual fall meeting of the Institute of Metals and the Iron and Steel divisions, in conjunction with the American .Society for Steel Treating and the Metal Congress and Show, at Boston was from many standpoints the most successful we have had to date. While many faces were missing from the various gatherings, the Institute registration reached the high mark of 324 members and guests. Cooperating with the Steel Treaters were also the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the Society of Automotive Engineers and the American Welding Society. ,The meeting was, as usual, a three-ring circus with technical sessions 'galore, plant .trips, visits to the Exposition, social events such as lunch- eons and dinners as well as entertainment for the ladies present.

Jan 1, 1931

By AIME AIME

HE State of Utah has an area of 84,990 sq. mi., and like other inland states in the West its population, although steadily increasing, is relatively small. The fact that it is a state possessing vast mineral resources is attested by a careful study of statistics which have been compiled by Federal and State investigators. Some idea of the extent of these resources and the degree of development of a particular state or region may be gained by such a study, but in the case of Utah statistics and other available information fail to portray completely the true extent and value of its existing metallic and non-metallic resources. The State is probably more widely known for its production of metallic ores which has placed it in an eminent position among the metal mining states of the Nation.

Jan 1, 1925

By P. S. Bagga, P. T. Luckie

Liberation (the process of destroying the interlock between unwanted materials, such as mineral matter and pyrite, and coal) is one of the most important precursors to the benefication of raw coal in order to produce high grade marketable coals at economical recovery levels. Liberation is achieved usually by comminuting the raw coal. However, because of the significant interaction between the production of fine particles to achieve liberation and the cost of separating fine particles, the coal industry needs a method projecting the change in washability with size reduction. Such a projection can be combined with size reduction and separation simulators in order to examine completely beneficiation circuitry to produce coals of stringent specification. This paper presents the development of an appropriate liberation model for coal and its solution by Monte Carlo simulation to predict the expected washability of the raw coal as a function of comminution. It includes model validation with a known binary mixture as well as with a known teritary mixture.

Jan 1, 1983

By B. F. Zwick

The entire production of oil in Ecuador so far has come from the Santa Elens Peninsula, Province of Guayas. Both the shallow fields of the northern and the deeper fields of the southern part of the peninsula have been in constant exploitation, though the former are of doubtful economic value. In Table I herewith, which commences with the total amounts produced by the various companies up to 1940, annual company totals are given for the succeeding years. The figures for 1944 have been partly estimated. Table 2 gives figures on casinghead gasoline. Shell Company of Ecuador (formerly known as Anglo-Saxon) has continued active exploration in the Oriente region east of the Andes, and during 1944 the Company's first wildcat well was spudded in. International Ecuadorean Petroleum Co. (formerly International Petroleum Co., Limited) has pursued an active exploration campaign since the latter part of 1939, and a drilling string was placed in operation about a year later. A second string of tools was added during 1943 and a third a few months ago. Ten wildcats, all dry, have been completed in this period, two wells are drilling at the present time and other locations are on the program. Seven of the wells thus far drilled are in the area between Guayaquil and the Santa Elena Peninsula, one up the Daule River beyond Balzar, one on Puna Island in the Guayas Estuary and one in the northern province of Esmeraldas. Both the present drilling wells are in the Guayaquil-Santa Elena zone. The situation in regard to concessions has changed during the past four years because I.E.P.C. has made its selections from the extensive Daule-Guayas Study Concession, as a result of which large tracts were returned to the Government; because of the expropriation of the holdings of the "Ecuapetrol," a German concern whose acreage has passed into other hands; the Peruvian-Ecuadorean boundary settlement, which has reduced Shell's holdings somewhat; and the transfer of most of the holdings of the Cia. Minero-Petrolera del Pacifico to I.E.P,C. The greater part

Jan 1, 1945

By AIME AIME

INSTITUTE HEADQUARTERS, Hotel Statler. On Monday evening, Oct. 28, 1912, the visiting members and guests were informally received by the Local Committee at the Headquarters of the Institute at. the Hotel Statler. The evening was very pleasantly spent in renewing old acquaintances and friendships and in forming new ones. The first session, held Tuesday morning, Oct. 29, 1912, in the impressive Assembly-Room of the hotel, was called to order by David T. Croxton, Chairman of the Local Committee. Mr. Croxton introduced the Hon. Newton D. Baker, Mayor of Cleveland, who extended a cordial welcome to the members and guests present. James F. Kemp, President of the Institute, who subsequently presided at the meeting, responded in behalf of the Institute.

Nov 1, 1912

By AIME AIME

A discussion of the Papers by Prof. H. Hubert, Liege, Belgium ; Mr. Tom Westgarth, Middlesbrough, England ; and Mr. K. Reinhardt, Dortmund, Germany, presented at the London Meeting, July, 1906, and printed in Bi-Monthly Bulletin, No. 12, November, 1906; pp. 910 to 930, 971 to 987, 1037 to 1163. MR. ADOLPH GREINER, Seraing, Belgium :-I have nothing special to add to Professor Hubert's paper except to say that there are some little things that it would be well to have cor-rected when the paper comes to be published. In dealing with the thermal efficiency of the engine, you will find that the 29.84 per cent was a very high one. Professor Hubert has forgotten those engines built under the Cockerill type, but he has referred to them in Appendix II. At our works at Cockerill we have built 63 engines, giving 63,000 h.p., and the other companies who have received licenses have built 113 engines, making 103,000 h.p., and aggregating 176 engines and 166,000 h.p. Eight years ago I had the pleasure of giving to the Institute the results obtained up to that time. Since then a good many engines have been constructed. In 1898 I thought a blast-furnace producing 100 tons of pig iron would allow 3,000 h.p. Professor Witz and Professor Hubert show that with the same production of pig the new engines take 3,800 h.p. out of the gas. At present at Cockerill we make 700 to 800 tons of pig iron per day, and we hope to have 26,000 h.p; in a few years. At present we have only half of that in gas-engines, but we hope to have in five or six years all the gas out of these furnaces to the number of 25,000 or 26,000 h.p. MR. Tom WESTGARTH, Middlesbrough, England:-My contribution is not a paper in the ordinary sense of the word, because I am sure you will agree with me that what I have written is only supplementary to the other two papers. The notes are schedules of the larger-size gas-engines built by the engine-makers, of 500 h.p. and upwards. If you look at the schedules you will find that in England gas-engines have be-

Jan 1, 1907

By R. W. Baldwin

On page 309, column 1, the second equation should read: Ma-M1 = dlog_Pa M2-M1 d log P2

Jan 1, 1961

By Alfred H. Bell

The upswing in oil production and drilling activity in Illinois that began in 1937 gained momentum in 1938 and promises to bring a new and higher peak in the state's annual production in 1939. In 1938 the production totaled 23,929,000 bbl., as compared with 7,426,000 bbl. in 1937, more than a threefold increase. The number of producing oil wells in the new fields was 230 at the end of 1937 and it increased to 2157 at the end of 1938. Daily production for the whole state increased from approximately 35,000 bbl. at the end of 1937 to approximately 135,000 bbl. at the end of 1938, nearly a fourfold increase. Of a total of 2539 wells completed in 1938 in Illinois, 1984 produced oil, 26 produced gas and 529 were dry holes. Of the total, 377 are classified as "wildcat" wells, defined as wells drilled outside of proved territory and more than one mile from the nearest production. The remainder, 2162 wells, were drilled in or near proved fields. Of the 377 wildcat wells (Table 2) 32 were successful in discovering oil or gas in commercial quantities, either new fields or extensions of old fields. Four of these discovery wells mere gas wells, which are not yet commercially productive owing to lack of pipe-line facilities. A special effort was made to ascertain the reasons for the locations of as many as possible of the wildcat wells and the results of this investigation are set forth in the following table:

Jan 1, 1939

By Alfred H. Bell

The upswing in oil production and drilling activity in Illinois that began in 1937 gained momentum in 1938 and promises to bring a new and higher peak in the state's annual production in 1939. In 1938 the production totaled 23,929,000 bbl., as compared with 7,426,000 bbl. in 1937, more than a threefold increase. The number of producing oil wells in the new fields was 230 at the end of 1937 and it increased to 2157 at the end of 1938. Daily production for the whole state increased from approximately 35,000 bbl. at the end of 1937 to approximately 135,000 bbl. at the end of 1938, nearly a fourfold increase. Of a total of 2539 wells completed in 1938 in Illinois, 1984 produced oil, 26 produced gas and 529 were dry holes. Of the total, 377 are classified as "wildcat" wells, defined as wells drilled outside of proved territory and more than one mile from the nearest production. The remainder, 2162 wells, were drilled in or near proved fields. Of the 377 wildcat wells (Table 2) 32 were successful in discovering oil or gas in commercial quantities, either new fields or extensions of old fields. Four of these discovery wells mere gas wells, which are not yet commercially productive owing to lack of pipe-line facilities. A special effort was made to ascertain the reasons for the locations of as many as possible of the wildcat wells and the results of this investigation are set forth in the following table:

Jan 1, 1939

By Oswald J. Heinrich

THE origin of spontaneous combustion in collieries is, of course, chiefly due to bad system in laying out the pits, unclean workings, insufficient ventilation, and neglect in damming off works after they are exhausted of the main coal. This is particularly indispensable in the Richmond field, because it is difficult and dangerous here, on account of the inferior roof, to remove the last vestiges of coal ; and we are compelled also to retain all the slates and bands, as far as possible, in the pit, to help fill up, although such material is liable to fire. This, however, can be prevented to a great extent, as mentioned below. I am satisfied that the only system of working this thick coal is by cross-cutting (Querbau, ouvrage & travers) or working in benches, as practiced in France (Creusot, Rive de Gier, St. Etienne), in Silesia (Kiinigsgrube), which I have used as far as it is practicable in an old pit, almost torn to pieces by former workings. Modifications may, of course, be needed, even in the same pit, on account of irregularities in the seam. I am also satisfied for economical reasons (on account of the heavy cost for timbering) that pits here ought to be worked upwards, even if it requires a longer period of time to win the coal, and a greater outlay of capital to commence with. The various saddle-shaped " troubles " making natural minor basins in the main basin aid in the execution of this plan. A pit worked once ought to be worked out clean, given up, and dammed off forever. If sections of proper height are assumed, according to the required amount of production for a certain period of time, they ought to be worked out and filled in as much as possible, dammed off, and ultimately allowed to fill up with water, in order to protect the upper works in future from fire in the gob below. This I consider indispensable, because we may not be able profitably to fill in all the ground. To do so we have to use the waste of the mine, although it is liable to fire in time. In using this stuff, it ought to be surrounded by walls of rock not liable to take fire, laid firmly in clay, the gob being in the middle, and firmly covered and packed with clay on top. In

Jan 1, 1967