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DAVID WHITE,* Washington, D. C.-This paper is very timely since the Philippine Islands are presumably open to the enterprise of the American driller, whereas much of the territory in that part of the world is closed to us. The United States has ambitious plans for the operation of a great merchant marine, which is to be oil burning in the main, and it takes but a glance at the world map to see the strategic advantage of oil supplies in the Philippines for such marine operations. It is a little difficult to understand why more attention has not been given to the Philippines, in spite of the difficulties attending development in these islands. A number of American oil companies are, I believe, at the present moment taking an interest in the possibilities of the Philippines. Important factors in the formulation of opinion regarding the importance of the oil deposits of the Philippines, as brought out by Mr. Pratt,1 are the point of view and the breadth of experience of the examining geologist. The average oil geologist, whose experience has been mainly in the Appalachian region, the Mid-continent, or Louisiana, or possibly even in California, on seeing the narrowness of the basins, the closeness of the folding, and the presence of igneous rocks here and there, would be likely to draw unfavorable conclusions as to the possibilities of the Philippine Islands. Geologists visiting that region should be familiar with the geological conditions of oil occurrence in Japan, Formosa, the East Indies, or in the Baku district, and their conclusions should be formulated with the knowledge and understanding of the occurrence of oil in those regions rather than in the United States.

Jan 8, 1920

The meeting of the Institute at St. Louis brought together many members of the Women's Auxiliary, and Mrs. Philip N. Moore, who was nominated as the Director for the St. Louis Section, took the occasion formally to inaugurate the organization in that district. A meeting was held at the Planters Hotel, anti after discussion as to, the aims and objects of the. Auxiliary, officers were nominated for the' Section; the meeting then adjourned for two days, to he resumed in Joplin.. Here a very successful meeting was held, at which the Vice-Chairman, Secretary, and Treasurer were elected. A great deal of interest was arouse under the able directorship of Mrs. Moore the St. Louis Section is likely to become a large and active organization. The president of the Women's Auxiliary, in opening the meetings, told the ladies present of the inauguration of-the-Society in February, 1917, and of the work which had been accomplished up to date. She told how the Society devotes itself to patriotic and humanitarian work along lines acceptable and interesting to the Mining Engineer, standing always alongside and behind the men of the profession. The Central Welfare Committee of the organization has three Sub-Committees: Foreign Relief, Emergency, and Americanization, and under one or other of those heads most of the work of the' Society has been done. Mr. Hoover was responsible for the inception of the Foreign Relief Committee, as its first work was the collection of funds for the supplementary meals for the Belgian Children. Under the energetic administration of Mrs. H. Knox, this sub-committee raised $12,100 in the period between the February meeting and the Declaration of war by the United States, when our government took over the entire duty of feeding starving Belgium. The organization of the Belgian Relief Committee, as it was styled, still remains, but the members are now asked to take up the question of relief in France. The President, Mrs. S. J. Jennings suggested at the St. Louis meetings that one way of working for the foreign relief alight be that all the members of the Auxiliary should, during the period of the war, forego all giving' and receiving of Christmas presents, except those they have been accustomed to give to the poor or in charity, and those they would give to the men in the services of the United States; that the money usually spent on the Christmas gifts should be put into a fund to be sent abroad for the fatherless children of France, as a gift from the families of the Institute. A good deal of discussion followed this proposal, as some of the ladies felt that children should have their Christmas gifts as usual. The Director of the Section emphasized the truth that the Christmas spirit was the .spirit of giving and sacrifice, and that no sacri-

Jan 1, 1918

By John J. Collins

The plight of the Japanese mining business is pitiful. Coal mines were given the highest priority for all materials they needed, yet between the end of the war and June 1948, the government was obliged to subsidize them to the extent of 22 billion yen, this being the difference between the consumer's price and the producer's price. Most of the metal mining companies have been operating at only one fifth to one third of war-time production rates, and financial losses have been terrific. The chief difficulties have been a plethora of office workers and a dearth of equipment, supplies, and miners. The principal material needs at metal mines are steel rails. cars, plates, nails, rubber hoses, and belting, to say nothing of modern core drills which are totally lacking. Until recently the great shortage was in coal; for lack of fuel the smelters and factories failed to produce the very metals and equipment now needed to operate the mines. Nation-wide shortages have created a monstrous inflation of prices throughout all the economy, currently amounting to 200 times the prewar figures. For example, the price of copper ranged from 500 to 900 yen per metric ton for many years until 1937, but in mid-1948 producers were

Jan 1, 1949

By E. L. Kinsella, F. S. White

Solids fluidization utilized in two ways for the commercial production of lime is described. Crushed —6 mesh limestone is dried and dedusted in a single bed reactor, then calcined in a 5-stage reactor. Construction, operation, and results obtained with both processes are given. THE solids fluidization process brought out by the Standard Oil Development Co. in the early forties for catalytic cracking of petroleum enabled rapid transfer of large quantities of heat from gases to solids under closely controlled temperature conditions. As the technique developed, it was natural that applications for the process outside the petroleum industry would be sought. The calcination of limestone to quicklime requires the transfer of a large quantity of heat at high and closely controlled temperatures. For these reasons, this possible application was one of the first to be investigated. Laboratory work conducted by the Dorr Co. indicated that lime produced by solids fluidization would be of exceptional quality. Calculation of theoretical heat balances showed that savings in fuel could be expected. Accordingly, a pilot plant of 10 tons per day capacity was erected by the New England Lime Co. at Adams, Mass., to substantiate the process. Operation of the pilot plant, previously described,' showed that excellent lime could be produced with a saving in fuel. The work also indicated the necessity of preparing feed to remove the finer fractions if dust losses were to be held to a tolerable level. A single-stage fluidized solids drier-stripper was developed to accomplish this sizing.' Subsequently a commercial lime reactor was erected at Adams, beginning operation in June 1949, followed by air sizer facilities completed in November 1951. This paper will describe these two applications of solids fluidization. The raw material for preparation of lime by the fluidizing process is a high calcium crystalline lime- stone having the approximate chemical composition shown in Table I. The stone is first prepared by crushing and grinding in conventional equipment to pass a 6-mesh sieve. After crushing, the material is sent to the FluoDry unit for drying and dedusting. Fluidized Drying and Sizing As shown in Fig. 1, the FluoDry unit consists of a -in. cylindrical steel shell, 9-ft ID by 22-ft 6-in. overall height. Attached horizontallv at the bottom is a 6-ft diam combustion chamber, approximately 7 ft 6 in. long. A refractory constriction dome, consisting of first-quality fire brick shapes, partitions the inside into two sections. The lower section is called the windbox and the upper the bed compartment. The vertical wall of the shell is lined with 6-in. first-quality rotary kiln blocks. In the bottom of the windbox a hoppered section is formed with castable refractory to permit the windbox to be readily cleaned via a 6-in. screw conveyor. The combustion chamber is similarly lined with refractory shapes. On the 6-in. diam section, 4 in. of insulating brick, HW-26, are used. The inner combustion chamber is lined with 4-in. Korundal brick to withstand the high flame temperatures encountered. An 8-in. steel feed pipe, entering vertically through the top and fitted with an air-operated cone valve,

Jan 1, 1953

By F. S. White, E. L. Kinsella

Solids fluidization utilized in two ways for the commercial production of lime is described. Crushed —6 mesh limestone is dried and dedusted in a single bed reactor, then calcined in a 5-stage reactor. Construction, operation, and results obtained with both processes are given. THE solids fluidization process brought out by the Standard Oil Development Co. in the early forties for catalytic cracking of petroleum enabled rapid transfer of large quantities of heat from gases to solids under closely controlled temperature conditions. As the technique developed, it was natural that applications for the process outside the petroleum industry would be sought. The calcination of limestone to quicklime requires the transfer of a large quantity of heat at high and closely controlled temperatures. For these reasons, this possible application was one of the first to be investigated. Laboratory work conducted by the Dorr Co. indicated that lime produced by solids fluidization would be of exceptional quality. Calculation of theoretical heat balances showed that savings in fuel could be expected. Accordingly, a pilot plant of 10 tons per day capacity was erected by the New England Lime Co. at Adams, Mass., to substantiate the process. Operation of the pilot plant, previously described,' showed that excellent lime could be produced with a saving in fuel. The work also indicated the necessity of preparing feed to remove the finer fractions if dust losses were to be held to a tolerable level. A single-stage fluidized solids drier-stripper was developed to accomplish this sizing.' Subsequently a commercial lime reactor was erected at Adams, beginning operation in June 1949, followed by air sizer facilities completed in November 1951. This paper will describe these two applications of solids fluidization. The raw material for preparation of lime by the fluidizing process is a high calcium crystalline lime- stone having the approximate chemical composition shown in Table I. The stone is first prepared by crushing and grinding in conventional equipment to pass a 6-mesh sieve. After crushing, the material is sent to the FluoDry unit for drying and dedusting. Fluidized Drying and Sizing As shown in Fig. 1, the FluoDry unit consists of a -in. cylindrical steel shell, 9-ft ID by 22-ft 6-in. overall height. Attached horizontallv at the bottom is a 6-ft diam combustion chamber, approximately 7 ft 6 in. long. A refractory constriction dome, consisting of first-quality fire brick shapes, partitions the inside into two sections. The lower section is called the windbox and the upper the bed compartment. The vertical wall of the shell is lined with 6-in. first-quality rotary kiln blocks. In the bottom of the windbox a hoppered section is formed with castable refractory to permit the windbox to be readily cleaned via a 6-in. screw conveyor. The combustion chamber is similarly lined with refractory shapes. On the 6-in. diam section, 4 in. of insulating brick, HW-26, are used. The inner combustion chamber is lined with 4-in. Korundal brick to withstand the high flame temperatures encountered. An 8-in. steel feed pipe, entering vertically through the top and fitted with an air-operated cone valve,

Jan 1, 1953

By C. H. Brehaut, W. N. Taylor, R. S. Douglas, H. A. Shannon

THE name for this new method of mining is derived from a composition of Horizontal, Radial, Diamond, and the drilling is from raises. This method, worked out at Copper Mountain, B.C., is believed to be distinct in many features from other known methods. GEOLOGY The ore deposits of Copper Mountain are related to the Copper Mountain stock, which is an ideal example of the magmatic differentiation in that it grades from a basic gabbro at the border to an almost pure orthoclase-pegmatite core. The "contact" ore bodies lie along the contact of the gabbro and an older complex of volcanics and sediment termed the "Wolfe Creek" formation. These older rocks, collectively referred to as greenstone, had been fractured prior to the intrusion of the stock and were highly metamorphosed during the intrusion. The "outlying" ore bodies are somewhat different in character, though a similar structural pattern prevails. It is believed that a deep-seated magma of which the Copper Mountain stock is a part has given off solutions that caused a partial granitization of some of the volcanics. Mining problems are caused further by the presence of a series of soft barren dikes intersecting a great many of the ore bodies, which are about 30 ft. wide, strike north-south, and dip at a high angle to the east; and are further increased by the presence of four major faults, with a great many minor faults running at acute angles from them. Fault zones average 8 ft. in width, and consist of gouge and breccia. They strike northeast and dip steeply to the northwest. The faults cut through the ore zones and the dikes, and continue on into the gabbro. The general mine structure with two types of ore bodies, bounded by weak walls and intersected by several series of soft barren dikes and major faults, indicated that a method of mining should be devised that would remove the ore at low cost with the least disturbance of the waste walls and dikes. THEORETICAL ESTIMATE OF STOPING WITH THE DIAMOND DRILL After consideration of various methods, the most suitable one appeared to be horizontal drilling to break the ore in a manner similar to shrinkage stoping. Drilling vertical holes or rings from a bench and breaking to an open slot was eliminated because the weak walls of ore, dike or waste would not permit this type of opening. It was then decided to drill either horizontal radial holes from a raise or parallel holes from a slot cut across the ore body. After discussion, the latter method was believed unsuitable, for the following reasons:

Jan 1, 1945

By Dan G. Cojocariu, E. Ene-Danalache, I. Huber-Panu

A general model which represents not only batch but also continuous flotation in multi-cell machines is presented. This model considers both the size distribution and the distribution of flotabilities in a size class for valuable mineral particles in the pulp. The general expression is shown to reduce to several previously reported models. In addition, a number of new models are found to arise for different specific assumptions concerning the flotability distribution and/or the size distribution of the particles undergoing flotation. Several of these new models are tested experimentally using laboratory-scale batch and pilot-scale continuous data. Model parameters are estimated from this data and a comparison of calculated recoveries and those experimentally determined are presented. Finally, the influence of the feed rate, aeration rate and valuable mineral content of the feed on the recovery is examined.

Jan 1, 1976

By H. M. Howe

It has seemed to the writer that one important, and indeed sufficient reason, for our slow progress in learning the relation between the chemical composition and the physical properties of cast-iron, has been that the problem has not been attacked properly. It would be well to select the most probable working hypothesis which we can find, and proceed to test that hypothesis by comparison with observed facts, and by making new observations specially designed for such a test. Our first step, then, is to select the most probable working hypothesis ; and to attempt this selection, to state the hypothesis and its immediate corollaries, and to take some first steps toward testing it, is the object of the present paper. Its chief purpose is to bring the hypothesis to the attention of those who are more familiar with the evidence than the writer can pretend to be, and in a better position both to present new evidence and to discuss it. The hypothesis here selected is, that composition governs properties in the case of cast-iron, in the same general way and for the same reasons as in the case of steel, mutatis mutandis. This hypothesis, which of course makes no claim to originality, certainly seems reasonable and probable; its exposition and discussion are made easy by our existing knowledge of the constitution of normal or " carbon " steel; it therefore seems worthy of consideration.

Jan 1, 1902

By Roman Y. Poderny, Vladimir V. Rjevskii

In the USSR, the Moscow Institute of Radio Electronics tronics and Mining Electro-Mechanics (MIRGEM) has started what it hopes will become a nationwide movement to educate mining students in the precise specialties that industry has come to require. Courses for mining engineers, the MIRGEM faculty proposes, should dovetail as exactly as possible with specific jobs available in the mining profession. Acting upon this thesis, MIRGEM revised its own curriculum in 1962 and has since presented an over-all plan for Soviet mining education before two mining school conferences as well as the Ministry of Higher Education and a number of major Soviet industrial ministries. The plan was universally approved with some suggested revisions. SOVIET MINING EDUCATION TODAY At present, mining education in the Soviet Union covers the exploitation of solid minerals and raw materials, including coal as well as ferrous and nonferrous metals. The extraction, storage, and refining of oil and gas is treated as a separate discipline. In all, there are 33 Soviet universities and institutes that train mining engineers for careers in the industrial, research and educational fields.

Jan 9, 1966

By S. S. Arentz

An organized safety program has reduced accidents at Pioche because effort is first devoted to arousing and maintaining interest in safety, followed by training in accident prevention, assigning responsibility for the detection and removal of safety hazards, and finally, by keeping score through an adequate system of records. A health program is intergrated with the safety program.

Jan 1, 1950

By George Frederick Kunz

The manifold inconveniences resulting from the absence of a uniform standard of mass for determining the weight of precious stones have long been obvious. This lack has been keenly felt in commercial transactions, and those who have devoted time and research to the study of historic diamonds and precious stones have had frequent occasion to deplore the absence of such a standard in the past. In a paper read in Chicago in 1893, before the International Congress of Weights and Measures, held in connection with the World's Columbian Exposition, the writer suggested dividing the carat into 100 parts, and constituting a standard international carat of 200 mg.; that is, 5 diamond carats or 20 pearl grains to a French gram, making 5,000 carats or 20,000 pearl grains to a ki1ogram. He also called attention to the fact that while this would depreciate the present diamoiid carat or pearl grain only about 2.5 per cent., it would abolish the troublesome discrepancies between the various carat-weights now in use, and could be easily explained and understood everywhere.' The subject of the various diamond carats, their incongruity, and the resulting confusion as to the correct weights of historic gems when definite records of them are searched for, has been fully treated by me in an extensive study of this subject in The Book of the Pearl2 To the earnest and unremitting efforts of C. E. Guillaume, Director of the Bureau Internationale des Poids et Mesures at Sévres, is largely due the eventual success of this eminently desirable reform, which he has constantly urged both by articles on the subject and by addresses delivered in Paris before the International Committee for Weights and Measures.3 The general adoption of a uniform standard for dealings in pre-

Jan 1, 1914

By H. F. Seifert

The classification and preparation of non-ferrous scrap mctals is a subject of interest to every individual and corporation that employs in its processes of manufacture non-ferrous metals and alloys and accurnulates in such manufacture scrap from these materials for disposition in the form of turnings, borings, short ends, punchings, clippings, grindings, washings, etc. All too frequently the disposition of such scrap is left to indivitluals who have no knowledge of the subject either from a metallurgical or a commercial standpoint, or both. Much money is thus lost whicli with a little more intelligent effort might be saved, and in this day of fierce competition and small profits such an opportunity cannot be ignored. The Mineral Resources of the United States for the year 1925, the latest issue available (Part 1, page 221), gives the secondary non-ferrous metals of certain classes recovered in the United States for the year 1924 to 1925 as shown in Table 1. The figures are tabulated simply to give the reader some idea of the scope of the secondary non-ferrous metal industry. Approximately 900,000 tons of an annual value of $244,000,000 were recovered in the year cited. In 1916 (again using thc Mineral Resources of the United States as authority) the tonnage reclaimed was approximately 632,000 tons and the value, because of the high prices for metals prevailing at that time, amounted to $265,000,000. It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss smelting and refining operations or the feasibility of an organization, primarily engaged in some other activity, conducting smelting and refining operations to convert its own non-ferrous scrap metals and alloys. The classification and preparation of these non-ferrous materials is a preliminary step, regardless of what subsequent operations the material may pass through or where these operations may be conducted. For that reason the subject can he readily discussed without any reference to subsequent activities. Space must be provided, with suitable handling facilities, scales and the necessary storage bins where the material may be accumulated. The scope of the activity, the nature of the industry and the tonnage handled will determine, in a large measure, what preparation, if any, it rrlay he desirable to give these scrap materials to put them in the best niarketable condition. By preparation is rneant largely what, for the want of a

By Edward H. Robie

SEPTEMBER usually being a fine month for motoring, we set out with our better half at the end of August in our Studebaker for points West. A combined business trip and vacation. The first night found us 392 miles away, at the Statler Hotel in Buffalo, and the next morning we revisited Niagara Falls for the first time in some forty years. The cataracts were as impressive as ever and certainly worth a day of any vacationist's time, instead of the half hour we could spare before going on to Chicago. The Centennial of Engineering, the hundredth anniversary of the founding of the ASCE, no doubt attracted the greatest gathering of engineers in history but still the attendance was disappointing to most of the forty or fifty societies that participated. Perhaps the time-the two weeks following Labor Day-was unfavorable. Few could afford to spend ten days away from home and business at that time of the year. Fall meetings of the AIME normally attract far more than the 300 that registered in Chicago. The technical program, however, was excellent, especially that arranged by the Minerals Beneficiation and Industrial Minerals Divs. The mineral industry papers of a more general nature that were presented as a part of the Centennial program on Monday and Tuesday of the following week were of high quality and offered by top names but had a meager audience. Undoubtedly the celebration brought engineers and engineering to the attention of millions of people. The pageant at the Museum of Science and Industry proved continuously interesting, showing the progress of engineering following the first use of fire. The show continued for many weeks. A special stamp was issued by the Government, which engineers might well use on their Christmas cards or other mail this year. After six days in Chicago we set out north, first visiting Fairbanks Morse in Beloit and Allis-Chalmers in Milwaukee. Will Mitchell's Basic Industries Research Laboratory is doing interesting work and being installed in more comfortable quarters. The next day at Ishpeming, C. W. Allen arranged for luncheon with a local group of AIME members and we then looked over the new surface plant of the Mather B mine, a model of modern functional design. Then on to a small dinner meeting at Calumet following cocktails at Endicott Lovell's attractive summer home on the lake at Point Mills. The new Memorial Union Bldg. at Houghton, where we were domiciled for the night through the courtesy of Roy Drier, is a beautiful modern addition to the college, a model of its kind.

Jan 1, 1952

By E. H. Timmerman, A. F. van Everdingen, J. J. McMahon

The prevent paper contains a method which combines the material balance equation' with the water influx equation' to obtain reliable values for the active oil originally in place and a quantitative evaluation of the cumulative water influx. The method is illustrated by an application to a reservoir without original gas cap. In the absence of an original gas cap. results may be obtained using only field production and pressure data, PVT analyses. and a minimum of subsurface information. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR AND RESERVOIR FLUIDS Production in the field under review is obtained from the top of the Wilcox formation of Eocene age, at a depth of approximately 8,100 ft subsea. The structural map, Fig. 1, shows that the accumulation, half elliptical in shape with the long axis in east-west direction, is trapped to the north and on the upthrown side of a normal fault. A number of east-west faults with additional minor faulting in random directions are found in the general area, and seismic information and production performance indicate in this particular case the existence of a second fault a short distance downdip, with a strike more or less parallel to the fault controlling the accumulation. It is estimated that 1,830 acres were originally underlain by oil and that the maximum thickness of the original oil column, about 37 ft, was only slightly greater than the maximum thickness of the oil-bearing sand. Maximum net sand thickness was estimated at approximately 26 ft. From logging and subsurface information the gross sand volume has been placed at 37.400 acre-ft. which reduces to about 27,500 acre-ft after probable non-productive intervals have been deducted. The following table presents laboratory analyse; data for the Wilcox sand cores. Average Average Samples Considered Permeability Porosity All Samples 236 md ..19.9percent Samples with k>l md 256 md 20.5 per cent Samples with k>8 md 275 md 20.9 per cent Interstitial water was estimated at 15 per cent. The initial gas-oil ratio was approximately 900 cu ft/bbl. and the initial shrinkage factor was determined by the laboratory to

Jan 1, 1953

By T. S. West

Completion and production data presented for three wells in the Oakville area of Live Oak County, Texas, which were completed near the gas-oil or water-oil contact, indicate that coning may not be as prevalent a cause of failure in such cases as is commonly assumed. Failure in the cases discussed is indicated to be due instead to: (I) erosion of the formation, (2) flowing out of mud filter cake, or (3) failure of the cement. An open-hole gravel-pack type of completion procedure is proposed for preventing failures of this kind by preventing movement of all solid material in the space in which completion is made. Various combinations of layers of gravel, sand, and cement are utilized for this purpose. Experimental results and theoretical discussion as to the applicability of gravel pack completion are included. Introduction This paper is primarily a study of the reasons for failure of oil-well completions near the gas-oil or oil-water contact, and suggests a procedure for increasing the efficiency of this type of completion. The value of improvement in completion effectiveness near the gas or water zone is not confined, however, to wells of relatively thin oil columns. Thick oil columns become thin as depletion progresses. It would seem to follow that the minimum distance from the gas or water zone at which completion can be made in a new well indicates the limit to which depletion may be carried in a well having an oil column of any initial magnitude. Only four ways can be postulated in which high gas-oil or water-oil ratio can initially occur if the zone exposed for production is within the oil column: 1. Failure of the cementing material. 2. Vertical coning. 3. Failure along the boundary between the cement and the wall of the well. 4. Failure of the formation comprising the wall of the well. Cementing materials such as portland cement and plastics have reached a high stage of development. Failures of this type are probably due almost always to extraneous causes such as mud contamination rather than to faulty cementing material. Vertical coning can and obviously does occur. However, the usual occurrence of thin impermeable streaks in sand sections and the success with which open-hole drill-stem tests can be made near the gas-oil contact suggest that over-all effective vertical permeability, and in turn vertical coning, is less prevalent than frequently is assumed. Much has been written on failure by flowing out of the mud filter cake between cementing material and the formation. A filter cake is always present if, prior to cementing, mud has come in contact with a permeable formation at pressures exceeding the pressure head of the fluid it contains. Mechanical methods are in use for removing filter cake during the cementing operation? which undoubtedly are of

Jan 1, 1947

By T. S. West

Completion and production data presented for three wells in the Oakville area of Live Oak County, Texas, which were completed near the gas-oil or water-oil contact, indicate that coning may not be as prevalent a cause of failure in such cases as is commonly assumed. Failure in the cases discussed is indicated to be due instead to: (I) erosion of the formation, (2) flowing out of mud filter cake, or (3) failure of the cement. An open-hole gravel-pack type of completion procedure is proposed for preventing failures of this kind by preventing movement of all solid material in the space in which completion is made. Various combinations of layers of gravel, sand, and cement are utilized for this purpose. Experimental results and theoretical discussion as to the applicability of gravel pack completion are included. Introduction This paper is primarily a study of the reasons for failure of oil-well completions near the gas-oil or oil-water contact, and suggests a procedure for increasing the efficiency of this type of completion. The value of improvement in completion effectiveness near the gas or water zone is not confined, however, to wells of relatively thin oil columns. Thick oil columns become thin as depletion progresses. It would seem to follow that the minimum distance from the gas or water zone at which completion can be made in a new well indicates the limit to which depletion may be carried in a well having an oil column of any initial magnitude. Only four ways can be postulated in which high gas-oil or water-oil ratio can initially occur if the zone exposed for production is within the oil column: 1. Failure of the cementing material. 2. Vertical coning. 3. Failure along the boundary between the cement and the wall of the well. 4. Failure of the formation comprising the wall of the well. Cementing materials such as portland cement and plastics have reached a high stage of development. Failures of this type are probably due almost always to extraneous causes such as mud contamination rather than to faulty cementing material. Vertical coning can and obviously does occur. However, the usual occurrence of thin impermeable streaks in sand sections and the success with which open-hole drill-stem tests can be made near the gas-oil contact suggest that over-all effective vertical permeability, and in turn vertical coning, is less prevalent than frequently is assumed. Much has been written on failure by flowing out of the mud filter cake between cementing material and the formation. A filter cake is always present if, prior to cementing, mud has come in contact with a permeable formation at pressures exceeding the pressure head of the fluid it contains. Mechanical methods are in use for removing filter cake during the cementing operation? which undoubtedly are of

Jan 1, 1947

By Raymond D. Sloan

Development and exploration in Oklahoma showed a definite increase in 1941 over 1940 in production, wildcat activity and total well completions. Geological and geophysical work continued and possibly increased slightly in amount. Oklahoma retained third place in the ranking of oil-producing states of the nation, topped only by Texas and California, and followed by Illinois in fourth position. Production averaged 416,800 bbl. daily, a 1.7 per cent increase, as compared with 409,900 bbl. daily for the year 1940. Maintenance of the state's relatively stable producing rate resulted from the discovery of numerous small pools, the recombing of old areas, the establishment of new producing horizons, and the drilling of an increased number of marginal wells. The market for the Mid-Continent crude was strengthened materially to meet the increased demand. Coincident with a deeline in production in Illinois, shipment of Oklahoma-Kansas crude to the eastern points averaged 453,000 bbl. per day, an increase of 49.4 per cent as compared with 1940. The movement south amounted to an average of 42,000 bbl. per day, a loss of 41.7 per cent. Secondary-recovery programs in Oklahoma were given more consideration, operators realizing that in the future many pools would necessarily have to resort to this type of operation. Five permits for water-flooding were issued by the Corporation Commission during the year. These projects were in Rogers, Wagoner and Nowata Counties, in the shallow northeastern area, which has relatively extensive development of this type in the Bartles-ville sand at from 600 to 1000 ft. in depth. Gas repressuring of an individual lease in the 35-year old Glenn pool, Creek County, proved relatively successful, and after a year's operation was extended to cover a much larger area, with several operators participating. More of this type of work is expected in the future; however, it was given an initial setback when the legislative proposal authorizing secondary recovery in the Wilcox zone of Oklahoma's largest pool, the Oklahoma City pool, was pigeonholed by the committee. A continuation of the low discovery rates within the state would possibly lead to a revival of interest in the project. Many pools formerly classified as prorated areas were removed from this classification and transferred into the group of settled production. At the close of the year the issuance of the Federal Conservation Order M-68 and the interrelated Preference Rating Order P-98 caused a sharp decline in drilling operations, which is expected to continue until such operations are stabilized at a lower rate. The ultimate effect of these two orders on discoveries, production and reserves is a matter of speculation and conjecture. During the year, 2110 new wells were drilled, an increase of approximately 18 per cent as compared with the previous year. Of the total, 1235 were oil wells with a combined initial potential of 342,754 bbl. daily, 178 were gas wells with a total

Jan 1, 1942

By Raymond D. Sloan

Development and exploration in Oklahoma showed a definite increase in 1941 over 1940 in production, wildcat activity and total well completions. Geological and geophysical work continued and possibly increased slightly in amount. Oklahoma retained third place in the ranking of oil-producing states of the nation, topped only by Texas and California, and followed by Illinois in fourth position. Production averaged 416,800 bbl. daily, a 1.7 per cent increase, as compared with 409,900 bbl. daily for the year 1940. Maintenance of the state's relatively stable producing rate resulted from the discovery of numerous small pools, the recombing of old areas, the establishment of new producing horizons, and the drilling of an increased number of marginal wells. The market for the Mid-Continent crude was strengthened materially to meet the increased demand. Coincident with a deeline in production in Illinois, shipment of Oklahoma-Kansas crude to the eastern points averaged 453,000 bbl. per day, an increase of 49.4 per cent as compared with 1940. The movement south amounted to an average of 42,000 bbl. per day, a loss of 41.7 per cent. Secondary-recovery programs in Oklahoma were given more consideration, operators realizing that in the future many pools would necessarily have to resort to this type of operation. Five permits for water-flooding were issued by the Corporation Commission during the year. These projects were in Rogers, Wagoner and Nowata Counties, in the shallow northeastern area, which has relatively extensive development of this type in the Bartles-ville sand at from 600 to 1000 ft. in depth. Gas repressuring of an individual lease in the 35-year old Glenn pool, Creek County, proved relatively successful, and after a year's operation was extended to cover a much larger area, with several operators participating. More of this type of work is expected in the future; however, it was given an initial setback when the legislative proposal authorizing secondary recovery in the Wilcox zone of Oklahoma's largest pool, the Oklahoma City pool, was pigeonholed by the committee. A continuation of the low discovery rates within the state would possibly lead to a revival of interest in the project. Many pools formerly classified as prorated areas were removed from this classification and transferred into the group of settled production. At the close of the year the issuance of the Federal Conservation Order M-68 and the interrelated Preference Rating Order P-98 caused a sharp decline in drilling operations, which is expected to continue until such operations are stabilized at a lower rate. The ultimate effect of these two orders on discoveries, production and reserves is a matter of speculation and conjecture. During the year, 2110 new wells were drilled, an increase of approximately 18 per cent as compared with the previous year. Of the total, 1235 were oil wells with a combined initial potential of 342,754 bbl. daily, 178 were gas wells with a total

Jan 1, 1942

By Burt C. Mariacher

To note that environmental considerations had a major im¬pact on the minerals processing industry in 1971 would be something less than a profound observation. The degree of its importance was demonstrated by MBD when it established the Environmental Committee as a new unit committee within the Division to achieve greater participation in exchange of information relating to the technologies and problems involved. It is appropriate and necessary to devote special attention to this timely aspect of minerals processing, as its influence penetrates the research, engineering and operations of almost all unit technologies that comprise minerals processing. The pollution abatement aspect of this industry has been such a dominant factor in recent years there is reason to wonder whether progress in unrelated technologies has been curtailed. Perhaps so, to some degree, but unit committee reviews presented in this article suggest rather that it would appear to have served as a catalyst for accelerated progress in development of new methods and improvement in more conventional ones. Present concepts regarding primary metal or mineral recovery and by-product potential may change considerably as a result of improved technology in waste product treatment.

Jan 2, 1972

By J. B. Umpleby

The function of gas in the development and production of oil has far-reaching consequences that should be emphasized. The technical aspects of the subject have recently had a great deal of attention but less thought has been given to fundamental concepts underlying oil and gas law and the many customs and practices that have grown up in the industry. I shall review briefly the advance in knowledge of the subject and attempt to relate these concepts to legislative, judicial and operating problems. Early writers on oil and gas in Pennsylvania noted their close association in oil pools and their contemporaneous decline in output; also, that as gas pressure decreases so does production, that new offset wells reduce the output of existing wells, and even that tubing a well lengthens its flowing life. Expanding gas was deduced as the principal expulsive force. These fundamental observations had been made at least as early as 1880.1 They were treated, however, as academic considerations and did not greatly influence law or practice for many years except to instill into all operators an urgent desire to hasten offset drilling in order to obtain as much of the flush as possible. The most noteworthy later advance in knowledge came in 1926 when Beecher and Parkhurst published their paper on Effects of Dissolved Gas upon the Viscosity and Surface Tension of OiL.² This paper added to the old idea of an expelling force the concept of a modifying agent that actually changes the physical characteristics of the oil and facilitates its movement through the pore spaces of the reservoir rock. Largely since the publication of this paper, intensive study and concerted effort have been given to means of using to a maximum, in producing oil, these combined properties of gas. This is shown clearly by the number of papers dealing with the subject, and the new and revived terms now widely used to express thought, such as the expressions gas energy, reservoir pressure, reservoir energy, gas-oil ratio, bottom-hole pressure, beaning, tapered tubing and back-pressure. These terms, some of which are

Jan 1, 1932