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By J. Jolly, R. V. Wheeler

This short note on the probable character of the organic sulfur compounds in coal can do no more than indicate lines of research. We have no new experimental work to describe, nothing comparable in value with the careful studies of American coals by Powell and Parrl and Yancey and Frazer. A study of the manner in which sulfur compounds exist in British coals (and their behavior on heat treatment) is rendered increasingly necessary by the fact that the British reserves of good coking coals of reasonably low sulfur content are fast being depleted. We believe that it is essentially by a study of the modes of formation, occurrence, and decomposition of the various types of inorganic and organic sulfur compounds in coal that it will be possible, with hope of success, to attack the problem of purifying coals, otherwise eminently suitable for coking, from these objectionable ingredients. Sulfur, so far as is at present known, does not normally occur in the free state in the coal conglomerate, but is chiefly distributed, irregularly, in three forms : 1. As primary constituents of the coal conglomerate, organic in nature and probably associated with those molecular complexes that have resulted from the degradation of the proteins of the plant tissues responsible for the formation of the coal mass. These constituents can be classed as "organic sulfur." 2. As metallic sulfides, e.g., iron pyrites. 3. As metallic sulfates, e.g., calcium sulfate and ferrous sulfate. (The occurrence of these compounds varies with the occurrence and degree of degradation of class 2.) It is usually found that sulfur compounds of class 3, the metallic sulfates, are present in coal in small proportions only, amounting to about 1 or 1.5 per cent. of the total sulfur. The compounds in classes 1 and 2 are therefore of more importance. Class 1 alone will receive considera-

Jan 1, 1925

By Nicholas J. Grant, Henry Epstein, John Chipman

FOR many years steel producers have been concerned with the presence of hydrogen in steel. Hydrogen dissolved in excess of its solid solubility at the melting point may cause bleeding and gross unsoundness in ingots and castings. In fully-killed steels the hydrogen content which results in these difficulties varies with the alloy content1 and may range from 6 to 12 ppm.* It is also recognized that of heat treatment diminishes rapidly as the size of the part to be treated increases. The time required to remove a specified fraction of the hydrogen present increases as the square of the diameter of the section, making the treatment of large- sizes impractical. In order to prevent bleeding and gross unsound-ness due to hydrogen, and in view of the inadequacy of corrective heat treatment alone to provide optimum properties when hydrogen is present in large sections, efforts to limit the hydrogen content must be taken while the steel is still liquid. The main subject of this paper is a discussion of the factors affecting the hydrogen content of liquid steel in acid and basic open hearth, and basic electric two-slag furnace processing. Literature Survey Because many of the results and observations reported in the literature have a direct bearing on the results obtained in the present research and form part of the basis for conclusions reached, a brief summary of the findings is necessary. Methods for experimental investigation of hydrogen in liquid steel are comparatively new. The first attempts to estimate the hydrogen content of the open hearth bath were by Kalling and Rudberg,6 who devised a method for collecting gases evolved from the boiling bath of a basic open hearth furnace. They found that the gas during the boil generally contained 2 to 3 pct H2. From this and Sieverts'

Jan 1, 1958

By W. S. Hungerford

As several papers on the subject of mining in soft ore-bodies have recently appeared in the Transactions and in the Engineering and Mining Journal, the following brief account of the method introduced by the writer at Low Moor, Va., may be of interest. It is in some respects similar to the system at Longdale, Va., referred to in Mr. Rothwell's paper, though differing in many of its details. That system has been employed by the Longdale Iron Company for many years, and to that company the writer is indebted for many

Jan 1, 1889

By W. B. Watson

IN the USSR considerable technical improvements have been made in hydraulic methods of mining coal. In New Zealand coal mining by these methods is still comparatively crude. The Russian techniques are closely studied in New Zealand, and this description is based mainly on translations of technical articles. Fundamentally the methods in both countries are the same-chief developments in the USSR are the use of high pressure water jets, capable of winning all but the hardest coal without prior blasting, and hydraulic pipeline transportation where the gradient is unsuitable for flume transport.

Jan 4, 1958

By D. R. Parrish, K. W. Beaver, H. W. Wood, R. W. Rausch

A pilot test of forward combustion in the Shannon pool, Salt Creek field, Wyo., is described. The Shannon sand, 950-ft deep, contains a heavy (25" API), viscous (76 cp) oil. Natural reservoir energy is limited. Primary production, intermittent since 1889, recovered only about 2 per cent of the oil in place. The field is operated by Pan American Petroleum Corp. for the Midwest Oil Corp., the owner. The original pilot was a 1.32-acre five-spot. The expanded pilot has eight producing wells surrounding a roughly triangular area of about five acres with the injection well near the center. A control or comparison well was also recompleted in another part of the field. Operation of the pilot has been little different front an ordinary gas drive. Little special equipment was found to be absolutely necessary. Except for some use of a temperature-resistant cement, all wells were conventionally completed. In spite of poor oxygen consumption, the over-all performance of the pilot has been good. Total oil recovery to June 1, 1961, was 73,971 bbl. The wells of the original pilot alone had produced about 24,000 bbl, equivalent to 50 per cent of the oil in place, when fire breakthrough at the first well occurred. These wells have now produced oil equivalent to more than 74 per cent of the oil in place in the original pilot area and production is continuing. It appears that ultimate recovery will approach theoretical maximums before the wells must be abandoned. Performance of the pilot has been encouraging, and expansion to a fieldwide combustion operation is being investigated. INTRODUCTION The results of both laboratory investigations and field tests of underground combustion have been reported previously.' However, most of the field tests were primarily experimental. More information and experience are needed before forward-combustion operations can be engineered with confidence. The purpose of this paper is to present the results of a successful pilot test of forward combustion. These re- sults should increase confidence in forward combustion as a practical method for commercial oil recovery. HISTORY OF THE SHANNON POOL The Shannon pool is located on the north end of the Salt Creek field in Natrona County, Wyo. It is approximately 50-miles north of the city of Casper. The Shannon pool's3 discovery well was completed in 1889, making this one of the oldest oil fields in the Rocky Mountain region. Three more wells were drilled in 1890. First production was hauled in wooden barrels by horse and wagon to the railroad in Casper. In 1894 a small refinery, the first in Wyoming, was built in Casper to process the Shannon crude. In the following years the field changed hands several times. It appears that each new owner did some development drilling as several wells were completed in each of the years 1895, 1902, 1905 and 1912, with negligible development in the intervening years. Forty-eight wells were drilled in this period, but many were later abandoned. Discovery of the more prolific Salt Creek field proper ultimately forced suspension of operations at the Shannon pool. After 1915 there was only sporadic production, mostly to supply cheap boiler fuel to drilling rigs in the Salt Creek field. But even this was discontinued in 1931. Since then the pool had been dormant until the recent operations, which are the subject of this paper. The Shannon pool is now owned by the Midwest Oil Corp. Field operations are conducted for Midwest by Pan American Petroleum Corp. THE RESERVOIR Fig. 1 is a map showing subsurface contours of the Shannon pool. The reservoir is on a nose of the Salt Creek anticline dipping to the north at about 500 ft/mile. The trap is provided by a shallow fault on the updip side of the productive area. The downdip limits are bounded by water, but this water has not provided an effective source of reservoir energy. The Shannon sand outcrops at many places in the immediate vicinity, providing good surface indications of the Salt Creek anticline. At the Shannon pool the sand has been lowered by faulting and is overlain by about 900 ft of shale and other sands. The Shannon sand consists of two members. The upper, a water sand, is about 40-ft thick and is separated from the lower member by several feet of sandy shale. The oil pay occurs in the lower mem-

By Michael J. Messel

OF the various minerals that occur in fibrous form known as asbestos, chryso-tile is the variety most in demand for commercial uses, and, last year, over 683,000 tons of the various grades were produced in Canada and United States, exclusive of African and Russian production, which figures are uncertain. Production has not been able to keep up with the increased demand, and an acute shortage exists. Canada, Russia, and Africa are still the most important producers. However, Russia consumes most of its production at home and exports very little. The United States consumes over 60 pct of the total production and produces only about 4 pct of the total from deposits in Vermont and small quantities from Arizona. This paper will review mainly, some of the more recent developments concerned with the extraction and processing of this fibrous mineral for various industrial uses, such as textiles, insulation, building materials and brake linings. Four of the more important factors that have influenced recent developments are: 1. The lack of discovering and developing new deposits of any important size to supply the increased demand. 2. Rapid postwar expansion of industrial uses, especially in asbestos cement products, together with in-rreased manufacturing facilities. Euro-peal) countries are again back on the market with their demand. 3. The ability of manufacturers to develop their technique of blending fibers and obtaining more utility value out of each ton of fiber, together with the utilization of shorter grades of fiber to obtain equally as good products. In the past, many manufacturers were wasteful in their use of fibers. 4. The struggle for reduced operating costs, in face of increased wages and prices of supplies, together with the necessity, at some mines, to change the method of mining from open quarry to underground. Most of the recent capital invested in the asbestos mining industry has gone into more efficient extraction of the fibers from the existing ore, especially in the recovery of the shorter grades. There has been very little new plant expansion. Progress in the utilization of shorter fibers has been so far reaching that some of the mining companies are retreating present tailings as they leave the mill, and others are considering retreating of the old tailing dumps for recovery of fibers that, until recently, were not saleable and were discarded as part of the tailing. Many of these dumps contain much valuable fiber from days when milling was very inefficient. It might be appropriate to mention here that the present known asbestos reserves of proved commercial value (excluding Russia) are being depleted at an alarmingly rapid rate, about 10,000,000 tons of ore is being mined annually. No new deposits have come into production during the last 15 years, with the exception of certain deposits in Africa, which are the most promising, and minor developments in Canada, Venezuela, Cyprus, Australia, and Brazil. The African deposits are the only ones that hold promise of developing large reserves. Unless new deposits are developed, in twenty years or maybe sooner, the supply picture will not be a very bright one. Stimulated by the acute shortage, increasing fiber prices and technical developments, many new areas are being prospected in Canada, United States, New Zealand, Newfoundland, South America, Europe, Africa, and China. From information now available, it appears that no real progress has been made in duplicating this rare development of nature by producing synthetic asbestos. The most promising experiments were carried out at the University of Leipzig, but they seem far from practical. There has been marked progress in fiber glass manufacture, but so far, it has replaced asbestos only in very few instances for minor uses. Asbestos ore and the fiber it yields are different in some respect at each mine and vary usually in the following: 1. Percentage of fiber content by weight to the gangue. 2. Variations in proportions of long and short fibers, some deposits being predominantly long fiber and others short fiber. 3. The hardness of the rock in which the fiber occurs. 4. The nature of the fiber, as to

Jan 1, 1950

By D. J. Carney, E. C. Rudolphy

Large macroscopic nonmetallic inclusions were related to altered fireclay refractories by chemical and microscopic means. Pouring refractories are discussed as a source of these large inclusions. Nozzles and wells are major contributors. Use of alkali and titania contents as tracers is described. Recommendations are offered to minimize the sources of inclusions from pouring refractories. IN any attempt to improve the cleanliness of plain carbon and alloy steels, consideration must be given not only to the proper deoxidation practice to minimize inclusions, but also to sources of inclusions from pouring refractories. In some cases, the inclusions resulting from deoxidation may be minor in amount, yet a relatively dirty steel may be produced as a result of improper care in the pouring practices for the steel. The number of studies of inclusions resulting from pouring refractories has increased recently and some excellent reports on this subject have already been published.'4 Some of these reports were reviewed briefly in a companion paper by M. P. Fedock.5 Mr. Fedock's contribution is a fine addition to the studies necessary to improve steel cleanliness for the ultimate benefit of all steel producers and consumers. In the interest of constantly improving cleanliness, the authors have been actively engaged for the past two years in experimentation to determine more closely the sources of inclusions in steel. One phase of this work was associated with efforts to define more closely the sources of macroscopic inclusions which have been experienced on occasional heats. The term "macroscopic inclusions" is defined in general as those inclusions which are visible to the naked eye or at low magnifications of the order of less than X25. These inclusions sometimes can be seen in the macro-etch tests of billets and slabs. This report summarizes a few of the field experiments and laboratory studies conducted at the South Works of the United States Steel Corp., which were made regarding nozzles, wells, and ingot scums, as well as inclusions occurring in steel products. The data in the present study, together with the data of Mr. Fedock concerning ladle erosion, should be of value in regard to future studies of inclusions arising from pouring refractories. The knowledge gained as a result of data collected thus far at South Works has been helpful in improving the cleanliness of the products and in pointing the way toward further improvements. Similarity of Large Inclusions to Refractories and Altered Refractories In the routine inspection of billet etch tests, occasional inclusions visible to the naked eye have been observed. These large inclusions most frequently occur near the top of the ingot and near the billet surface. When such material was encountered, careful examinations were made in an attempt to determine the origin of these inclusions. In a relatively few cases, examination revealed that the material was unaltered fireclay refractory of a type similar to that used for hot-top material, with only the surface of the inclusions having an altered appearance under the microscope. However, the great majority of these inclusions were completely altered-refractory material. The term "altered refractory" is defined

Jan 1, 1955

By R. Taggart, R. H. Ericksen, D. H. Polonis

MarTENSITIC a has been observed to form spontaneously from the retained ß phase during the preparation of thin foil specimens of metastable Ti-Cr alloys containing from 6.9 to 20 wt pet Cr. Similar spontaneous martensite reactions have been reported in thin foils of 0 brass' and other alloys.2 4 The absence of retained austenite in iron-based alloys has also been attributed to spontaneous decomposition during thinning.5 The present work indicates that a unique situation occurs during which the spontaneous transformation takes place when the transitional ? phase is present in the as-quenched or partially aged ß phase. Alloys containing 6.9, 7.0, 8.0, 12.0, and 20.0 wt pet Cr were prepared by the levitation melting of "io-chrome" chromium and iodide titanium. The 0.5-in.-diam ingots were vacuum-annealed at 1000oC, and wafers 0.020 in. thick were then cut from the ingots. These wafers were wrapped in molybdenum foil, encapsulated in Vycor under a reduced pressure of purified helium, and then held for 30 min at 1000°C. The specimens were quenched in water to retain the metastable high-temperature ß phase. The quenched alloys were thinned by mechanical grinding to about 0.005 in. thick, then electropolished in a solution of 300 ml methyl alcohol, 175 ml n-butyl alcohol, and 30 ml perchloric acid at a temperature of -40°C. Needle specimens 0.005 to 0.010 in. diam were taken from each ingot and heat-treated with the foil specimens. X-ray diffraction patterns indicated the structure of the 6.9, 7.0, and 8 wt pet alloys to be a

Jan 1, 1968

By D. R. Mitchell

This paper discusses some of the fundamental physical and chemical characteristics of coal in Illinois that affect its preparation for the market. At the present time preparation consists almost entirely of sizing and hand-picking. The washing of coal has almost entirely disappeared from the state. This is a rather startling fact when one considers that in the year 1908 Illinois outranked all other states in the quantity of coal washed and a few years later, in 1912, 85 washing plants were reported. Two reasons are apparent for this change. One, which is probably the most important, is that immense areas of comparatively clean coal were opened; the other is that many of the early washing plants were inefficient, so that washed coal was looked upon with disfavor in many trade centers. Objectives of Operators Some of the outstanding preparation aims being given due consideration by operating men are: 1. The greatest possible production of lump and domestic sizes which bring in the market at least $1 per ton more than the fine sizes or screenings. 2. Efficient screen sizing with as little breakage as is consistent with economical operation. 3. The removal of extraneous ash and sulfur. 4. Utilization of low-priced screenings. 5. Suppression of dust in domestic coal shipments. Preparation Underground To get the greatest possible production of the larger sizes, preparation must start at the face. Improvements in blasting and loading have increased the sizes larger than 2 in. by as much as 20 per cent. at some mines. Tiffany and McKitterickl report the results of an investigation they made at a mine in southern Illinois in which, by a carefully controlled

Jan 1, 1931

By H. M. Morse

During the year 1942 there were 66 wildcats drilling in Mississippi. One cored in oil sand, the Macro Drilling Company's Longbell No. I in Clarke County, but as yet it has not succeeded in recovering the oil. These drillings broughi to light five salt domes, two of which had heavy oil showing; one drilled by the Magnolia Petroleum Co. in Warren County, and

Jan 1, 1943

By Carroll F. Hardy

THE position of the coal industry has been affected by a wide variety of developments in the production and use of energy. The tempo of development and change has been increasing and the end is not in sight. Legislation is currently being proposed for commercial use of atomic power, and the employment of atomic energy in significant quantity will probably occur about the same time as the decline in production of petroleum and natural gas. But these developments are in the future and have little immediate effect on utilization and marketing of coal. While no one should try to suppress or retard the development of a new and economical source of energy, both the coal and private utility industry should be allowed to question how the nuclear power is to be used, who is to use it, and who is going to pay for it. The taxpayers have a monopoly on fissionable material and the knowledge to employ it. Any commercial use must stem from this source. It is not hard to visualize either taxpayer- subsidized private utility atomic power plants on one hand and super TVA's on the other. In view of the gains of gas and oil in the home heating field, it is interesting to compare the 1940 and 1950 census reports on the kind of fuel used for heating in occupied dwelling units. Table I shows that whereas coal provided 77 pct of the fuel for central heating (furnaces and boilers) in 1940, it was down to 45.4 pct in 1950. However, only about 1 ½ million units were lost in this 10-year period.

Jan 3, 1954

By H. M. Morse

During the year 1942 there were 66 wildcats drilling in Mississippi. One cored in oil sand, the Macro Drilling Company's Longbell No. I in Clarke County, but as yet it has not succeeded in recovering the oil. These drillings broughi to light five salt domes, two of which had heavy oil showing; one drilled by the Magnolia Petroleum Co. in Warren County, and

Jan 1, 1943

By D. J. Schmatz, H. I. Aaronson, H. A. Domian

Diffusion kinetics in disordered hcp Cd-Mg alloys have been investigated by means of the Kirkendall effect and concentration-penetration curves determined with an electron-microprobe analyzer. Self-diffusion coefficients of both species were determined at the three marker compositions obtained, averaging 27.6, 46. 7, and 78.1 at. pct Mg, by means of the Darken analysis. These coefficients were then corrected for the unequal and concentration-dependent partial molar volumes of the two elements with the Balluffi analysis, and for the vacancy flux effect by the Manning analysis. The latter correction reduced the Balluffi correction produced larger changes in the self-diffusiv-ities; neither, however, produced statistically significant changes in the Do's or the H'S. The most striking result of this investigation is that at all three compositions and at all temperatures studied both the uncorrected and corrected self-difjusivities of magnesium are higher than those of cadmium. The Cd-Mg system is the first one found in which the higher melting, lower vapor pressure element diffuses more rapidly. Both an empirical correlation due to Toth and Searcy and considerations of the atomic mechanism of diffusion indicate that this anomaly is probably due to a comparatively low value of the activation energy required for a magnesium atom and a vacancy to exchange sites, perhaps occasioned by the higher compressibility of magnesium atoms. KIRKENDALL effect studies have been previously reported for only two hcp solid solutions: the E phase of the Zn-Cu system1 and the a phase of the Cd-Hg system.' In neither investigation were the marker-movement studies supplemented with the concentration-penetration curve determinations necessary to evaluate self-diffusivities by means of the atano and the Darken analyses. The present program was undertaken to obtain both types of data on a hexagonal solid solution in order to provide more detailed information relevant to the mechanism of diffusion in this type of lattice. The Cd-Mg system was chosen for this study because the disordered solid solution extends across the entire phase diagram at temperatures above 253"c5 and the substantial difference in the melting points of the component pure metals promised that marker movements would occur at reasonably rapid rates should the diffusivities of the two species be as unequal as might be anticipated. The experimental convenience of the relatively low melting points of cad-miun and magnesium and the availability of extensive and accurate activity data6 (required for application of the Darken analysis) were additional reasons for selecting this alloy system. Since the anisotropy of diffusion is not large in either pure cadmium7 or pure magnesium,' the diffusion couples were prepared from polycrystalline components. The presence of a well-defined texture in the couples—the c axis of individual crystals tended to be normal to the diffusion direction— however, provides a fair degree of crystallographic definition to the data obtained. The principal (and entirely unexpected) finding of this investigation, that magnesium, the high-melting low-vapor pressure element, diffuses more rapidly than cadmium, in contradiction to a broad range of results in fcc and bcc alloys, as well as in the previously studied hcp alloys,172 makes the self-diffusivity determinations of immediate interest in understanding the origin of this anomalous result. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The cadmium (Belmont Smelting and Refining Co.) and magnesium (Dow Chemical Co.) used in this study were both of 99.99 pct purity. Alloys containing 51.0 and 65.6 at. pct Mg were prepared from these materials by melting under a MgC12-base flux in a high-purity graphite crucible. These alloys were subsequently hot-worked and then homogenized in a helium atmosphere at temperatures close to their solidus points. Sandwich-type diffusion couples of the type g/d/g were prepared from the pure metals by solid-state diffusion. Two-piece alloy couples of Mg/65.5 at. pct Mg (Mg/gCd) and Cd/51.0 at. pct Mg (Cd/CdMg) were welded by a liquation technique. The individual components of both types of couple were initially cylinders 1.27 cm in diam and in length; the ends of these cylinders were machined accurately flat and parallel. For both welding techniques, the pure cadmium cylinders and the alloys were chemically polished in a mixture of 40 pct ethyl alcohol, 40 pct hydrogen peroxide (30 pct conc), and 20 pct nitric acid,g while those of pure magnesium were polished in a solution of 10 pct nitric acid in ethyl alcohol.' Immediately afterwards, both metals were rinsed in freshly distilled acetone, and then in similarly purified methanol.' The Mg/Cd/g couples were assembled in a carefully cleaned stainless-steel welding fixture, in which a screw operating through a self-centering arrangement permitted a controlled pressure to be exerted upon a couple prior to welding.'' Tungsten marker wires 0.005 cm in diam were placed at the d:g interfaces of some of these couples, and imbedded in the couples during the application of pressure. As soon as a couple had been assembled, the welding fixture was inserted into a Pyrex capsule containing a packet of zirconium chips at each end. The capsule

Jan 1, 1967

By Wilbur T. Stuart

THE increased demand for iron ore has necessitated a re-examination of ore-bearing lands on which the presence of water previously has indicated hazardous and expensive operating conditions. In view of the importance of iron ore production to the national economy and defense, the Ground Water Branch of the U. S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the state of Michigan, began a study of mine drainage in the Iron River district in 1945, and later extended the work to the Marquette district. The purpose of these studies was to define the principles involved in the movement of surface and ground water toward the mined areas, with the hope that the information obtained in the research would lead to the development of methods of water control and to a reduction in the total mining costs.

Jan 12, 1951

By John E. Conley, John A. Ruppert

LIGHTWEIGHT aggregates have been in use for many years in the United States but are now receiving more and more attention by manufacturers and users of concrete shapes. These shapes comprise building blocks, special forms, such as door sills, lintels, floor slabs, and beams. Lightweight aggregate also is adapted for monolithic construction. The increased building activity since termination of the war, together with the widespread shortage of cinders resulting from a general trend toward the use of oil and pulverized-coal fuels, has aggravated the situation. In some localities? new producers of lightweight aggregates have been stimulated to increased efforts to supply the demand. In addition, various estab- lishments of the United States Government have recently given attention to this problem. The National Bureau of Standards, in the Commerce Department, and the Bureau of Reclamation, in the Interior Department, have completed a series of tests on concretes made from some of the available commercial aggregates in order to evaluate their qualities. The tests have been made to focus attention on the desirable properties of good aggregates. This work was done at the request of the Technical Office of the National Housing Agency and Housing and Home Finance Agency. Some time previously, the former office had conducted a survey of the locations where lightweight aggregates are produced.' A study of this information discloses that the producing centers are widespread and that certain areas, notably the region east of the Mississippi River and especially the southeastern states in the sections along the Atlantic Coast, have only a limited number of such plants. The situation has been alleviated to some extent with new plants having been erected near Richmond, Va., and Lansford, Pa. Experiment Stations of the Federal Bureau of Mines at Tuscaloosa, Ala., Norris, Tenn., and College Park, Md., have investigated types and sources of potential raw materials such as clays, shales, and slates, as well as methods and procedures for utilizing these materials for their conversion into aggregates, and have published the data as a Bureau of Mines report.' Structural Uses of Lightweight Aggregates: Production of masonry blocks in the United States has averaged close to a billion units a year for the past three years, and of these it is estimated that more than 40 pct consisted of the lightweight type. It is anticipated that the future will witness an increase in this percentage in view of the superior insulating properties, decrease in dead weight, and ease of handling, transporting, and laying units of this type. Lightweight aggregates are used extensively in multistoried buildings in which the weight of the walls and floors is carried by a structural steel framework. The substitution of a lightweight concrete for normal concrete in a building of this type has brought about in many instances some or all of the following advantages:

Jan 1, 1951

By John A. Ruppert, John E. Conley

LIGHTWEIGHT aggregates have been in use for many years in the United States but are now receiving more and more attention by manufacturers and users of concrete shapes. These shapes comprise building blocks, special forms, such as door sills, lintels, floor slabs, and beams. Lightweight aggregate also is adapted for monolithic construction. The increased building activity since termination of the war, together with the widespread shortage of cinders resulting from a general trend toward the use of oil and pulverized-coal fuels, has aggravated the situation. In some localities? new producers of lightweight aggregates have been stimulated to increased efforts to supply the demand. In addition, various estab- lishments of the United States Government have recently given attention to this problem. The National Bureau of Standards, in the Commerce Department, and the Bureau of Reclamation, in the Interior Department, have completed a series of tests on concretes made from some of the available commercial aggregates in order to evaluate their qualities. The tests have been made to focus attention on the desirable properties of good aggregates. This work was done at the request of the Technical Office of the National Housing Agency and Housing and Home Finance Agency. Some time previously, the former office had conducted a survey of the locations where lightweight aggregates are produced.' A study of this information discloses that the producing centers are widespread and that certain areas, notably the region east of the Mississippi River and especially the southeastern states in the sections along the Atlantic Coast, have only a limited number of such plants. The situation has been alleviated to some extent with new plants having been erected near Richmond, Va., and Lansford, Pa. Experiment Stations of the Federal Bureau of Mines at Tuscaloosa, Ala., Norris, Tenn., and College Park, Md., have investigated types and sources of potential raw materials such as clays, shales, and slates, as well as methods and procedures for utilizing these materials for their conversion into aggregates, and have published the data as a Bureau of Mines report.' Structural Uses of Lightweight Aggregates: Production of masonry blocks in the United States has averaged close to a billion units a year for the past three years, and of these it is estimated that more than 40 pct consisted of the lightweight type. It is anticipated that the future will witness an increase in this percentage in view of the superior insulating properties, decrease in dead weight, and ease of handling, transporting, and laying units of this type. Lightweight aggregates are used extensively in multistoried buildings in which the weight of the walls and floors is carried by a structural steel framework. The substitution of a lightweight concrete for normal concrete in a building of this type has brought about in many instances some or all of the following advantages:

Jan 1, 1951

By Carl Beal

Introduction. DURING the latter part of 1915 and the first half of 1916, the writer held the position of geologist in connection with the conservation work instituted by the U. S. Bureau of Mines, on oil and gas land belonging to the Indians of the Five Civilized Tribes in Oklahoma. The duty of the geologist was to correlate formations containing oil, gas,-and water, and to determine the relations of these substances in the different formations so that the conservation agents might carry on their work most intelligently. On account of the rapid development of the Cushing field, which lies in the western part of the Creek Nation, much work was clone there by the inspection force. In the course of the geologic studies a large amount of information was collected, which, on analysis, has disclosed some interesting facts worthy of publication. The report, of which the following remarks are an abstract, has been prepared and submitted to the U. S. Geological Survey for publication. This report is now (June, 1917) in the press and will doubtless be issued in a few weeks. Methods Used In addition to the structure maps showing the folding of the Pawhuska limestone, which crops out in several places in the Coshing field, separate structure maps of the three most important productive sands-the Layton (Fig. 2), Wheeler, and Bartlesville-have been prepared. These structure maps, were prepared by obtaining the logs of nearly all the wells

Jan 8, 1917

By R. C. Ku, R. G. Davies

The stress-strain behavior of Fe-C and Fe-Ni solid-solution alloys has been investigated at 25°C. It is found that the rate of solid-solution strengthening is dependent upon the strain at which the yield stress is measured, the macroyield stress being much more concentration-dependent than the microyield stress. In fact the addition of nickel does not lead to any increase in the microyield stress of iron. The primary effect of increasing the carbon or nickel content is to increase the slope of the stress-strain curve in the microyield region; this effect has been correlated, by means of transmission electron microscopy, with a decreased ability of the dislocations to cross-slip. It is concluded that the Mott-Nabarro theory is a good description of true solid-solution hardening in these and other iron-base alloys. A.LL theories of the solid-solution strengthening1-4 indicate that the flow stress of an alloy increases both with solute concentration and "misfit" between the solvent and solute atoms. The functional relationship between strength, solute concentration, C, and misfit depends upon the particular theory. Mott and Nabarro1,2 and Schoeck and Seeger3 both predict a linear increase in strength with concentration, while Fleischer4 indicates that the strength should be proportional to C1/2; there are in the literature experimental observations to support both these compositional dependencies.1'8 The experimental evidence used to support the theories is the change in macroscopic yield stress (strain, e, = 10-3) with composition. However, recent investigations have revealed that solid-solution strengthening in a Cu-Al single crystals7 and in Fe-V polycrystal-line" alloys depends upon the strain at which the flow stress is measured; a flow stress in the microplastic range (e = 10-6 to 10-5) is much less concentration-dependent than the macroyield stress. Since the theories of solid-solution strengthening are concerned in particular with the stress to move a dislocation in a dislocation-free matrix, they should only be compared with microyield-stress data; it will be shown that in a material deforming homogeneously the microyield stress (e = 10-6) is approximately the stress to move through the matrix those dislocations which have been nucleated by stress concentrations such as particles or grain boundary ledges.9-11 In contrast, the macro-yield stress is more complex in that it is affected by several phenomena: dislocation multiplication, dislocation interactions, and the ease of propagating slip across grain boundaries. For example, it is experimentally observed that when long-range order12'13 or solute effects10 restrict cross alip the grain boundary

Jan 1, 1967

By O. G. Bell

While all of the Southwest Texas fields lie within the Gulf Coastal Plain this area may be divided into three subdivisions—the Coastal Plain zone proper, the Reynosa Escarpment zone, and the interior zone. The Coastal zone includes that strip adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico and . extending inland for a distance of about 60 miles and includes the Palo Blanco, Palangana, Piedras Pintas, Kingsville, Agua Dulce, Saxet, White Point and Refugio fields. The Reynosa Escarpment zone includes a Pliocene overlap over older Tertiary sediments lying west of the Coastal zone. The western margin of the Reynosa formation forms a more or less well-defined westward facing escarpment with which the so-called Reynosa Escarpment fields are indirectly related. These fields include those in eastern Zapata, eastern Webb, western Jim Hogg, western Duval, McMullen, Live Oak, Bee, Goliad and Victoria counties. The interior zone includes these fields west of the Reynosa Escarpment which are not in any way related to it and are on separate types of structure. Production data by fields and wells are shown in Table 1. Roma.—During 1928 the Texas Co. completed two small gas wells at 198 ft. on the Roma Structure near the town of Roma on the Rio Grande in Starr County. This gas is of no commercial importance but was used for fuel in drilling other deep tests on this structure. Three dry holes ranging from 3600 to 4200 ft. were drilled; then their No. 4 Guerra, the fourth deep test, was completed during December as a small producer of 37" Bé. oil from a sand at 3560 to 3590 ft. No production was marketed during December but arrangements were being made to handle the output from this well during 1930. This is the first commercial producer in Starr County. Driscoll.—In 1929, Robert Driscoll discovered gas on his Santa Rosalia Ranch in Duval County while drilling water wells. Two sands were developed, one at 2400 ft. and another at 2936 ft. and several gas wells were completed in each, ranging in volume from 15,000,000 to 40,000,000 cu. ft. and in reservoir pressure from 500 to 1,000 Ib. Early in January of 1929, Mr. Driscoll's No. 14 Fee was completed as a 50-bbl. oil producer at 2894 ft. Two other oil producers were completed early in 1929. Mr. Driscoll's death early in the year curtailed develop-

Jan 1, 1930

By L. D. Ricketts

' In recent years the metallurgical field of the copper industry has expanded greatly, the copper ores have become lean add diverse in charactcr, and we are obliged to treat such ores on a very large scale. On the commercial side, the operating and consulting staffs of the great mining companies have been enlarged and organized, and no great capital expenditure is decided upon until it has been investigated and recommended by a highly organized force of specialists as a committee. I believe that in the scientific field and in the most valuable proceedings of our -various societies the old idea of one-man point of view and one-man treatment of principle and detail together has been splendidly developed and should continue, but for the advancement of our art we should deliberately discuss subjects among ourselves in order to do away with the idiosyncrasies of the individual and to gain a composite view reprcscnting the best thoughts of many men. In the development of new ideas leading to the introduction of new methods, the societies could enlarge their present great field of usefulness if such discussion be had, and in my opinion further great good could be done if a number of men of different qualifications and experience would join in preparing a joint book, each dealing with his particular problem, but consulting the other men. In this way individualism would be preserved and various processes would be described, and if properly reviewed the paper would be palpably capable of analysis, and the student would have at his command the associated efforts of a group of qualified engineers. I have neither the time nor the qualifications to make an investigation and study in detail of hydro-metallurgical processes, but for some years I have foreseen the development of such processes, and I have a deep interest in the subject and have given some of its phases careful consideration from a long-distance viewpoint. I have assisted in directing many experiments and in reviewing the merits of many processes, and am glad to make some introductory remarks with the understanding that other gentlemen present will freely and candidly enter into the discussion and help to fill out the few bare bones that I can uncover.

Jan 1, 1916