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By Richard H. Jahns

Gem materials, comprising those minerals and closely allied natural substances used for personal adornment, for the fashioning of ornamental objects, or for other decorative purposes, have been valued in human commerce for thousands of years. Amber, jet, natural glasses, and at least 15 mineral species were sought and used by primitive man, and most of the materials in common use today were known well before the time of Christ. Their variety is remarkably great, and the traceable relationships among their respective sources, modes of occurrence, properties, and histories of production, preparation, and valuation are extremely complex. Their uses have been affected by numerous shifts in fashion, and from time to time by superstition, by decrees of church and state, by personal interpretations of religious significance, and by various presumptions concerning medicinal value and influence on human behavior (Ball, 1935, 1950; Kunz, 1913; Pogue, 1915; Whitlock, 1946). Thanks to their durability, portability, and relative scarcity, some gem stones have been employed as media of exchange, and the investment value of the more precious stones has long been recognized and exploited, especially in Asiatic and European countries. Demands for gem materials have stimulated trade among various peoples for centuries, and they also were responsible for much early geographic exploration. During more recent times they have prompted numerous geological studies and a considerable amount of research on the growth and properties of crystals. Apart from decorative uses, some naturally occurring gem materials also are employed directly in numerous fields of industry. Substances that are manufactured for gem or industrial uses are termed synthetic gem materials; most of these correspond in composition and crystal structure to certain minerals found in nature. Imitation materials are those whose use is based upon their resemblance to substances of different composition and greater intrinsic value. Gem stone is a designation commonly restricted to those materials suitable for personal adornment, and the complementary term ornamental stone is applied to the remaining materials not used industrially. This distinction is arbitrary and somewhat inconsistent, owing to numerous geographic differences and historical shifts in end uses. Further, there is a complete gradation between the category of ornamental stones and that of dimension stone. Substances that lose their identity in use are excluded from the gem category; thus a transparent crystal of beryl would not be classified as a gem stone if it were processed as a source of beryllium metal. The adjectives precious and semiprecious have been employed as a means for distinguishing different gem materials on the basis of recognized value. Diamond, emerald, ruby, and sapphire consistently have been regarded as precious stones, and in cut form they commonly are referred to as the noble gems. Opal, pearl, turquoise, and chrysoberyl also have been classed as precious at various times. In recent years, however, it has been increasingly recognized that no satisfactory distinction can be based upon assessed value or any group of specific properties, and now all gem stones normally are referred to as precious. Indeed, the tendency is to extend this term to include many of the so-called ornamental stones, and the designation semiprecious has been essentially discontinued. Unlike most mineral commodities of economic value, gem materials are little altered in processing for end uses. Some stones are used in essentially their natural form, and most are reshaped and polished without significant changes in their fundamental properties. Thus the preparation of gem and ornamental stones is intended chiefly to emphasize or enhance

Jan 1, 1983

By W. E. Gaby

SINce the time of their discovery, the genesis of the ores at Mount Morgan, and the nature of the changes which have affected the surrounding rocks, have been the subject of investigation and speculation by geologists and mining engineers. Developments at this mine, for a long period the greatest gold producer of the world, show that with depth the orebody grades into copper, of which metal it now furnishes a large output, exceeding in value the gold. In earlier times, the purity of the gold and the first extremely heterogeneous character of the ore made it an interesting problem. Now, the probable depth of the copper enrichment, genesis, and true relations of the neighboring rocks furnish equally profitable material for investigation, and the present somewhat detailed description of these ores and rocks, from microscopic study, may prove of interest. , The mine occupies a highly silicified portion of a belt of quartz-porphyry, which is believed to be the oldest rock of the region. This belt of quartz-porphyry and allied rocks runs north and south between two areas of a later intrusive granite, as shown on the geologic map,' Fig. 1. Near the orebody the quartz-porphyry has been intruded by a dense basaltic mass called the " Old Basic." Cutting all three of these igneous masses are two sets of basaltic dikes, one running northwest-southeast, and the other, cross dikes, northeast-southwest. These dikes may be contemporaneous with, instead of later than, the ore. Their number has caused peculiar difficulties in extracting it, as the clay selvage of decomposed material affords no adhesion between dike and ore, causing great blocks to loosen and come down. The investigation was based on specimens furnished by B. Magnus, former general manager of the mine, and notes on the areal geology by

Jan 1, 1917

By Alexander Field

The hot-rolling properties of a series of high-sulfur steels are described. From a consideration of the sulfur, manganese, and zirconium contents of these steels, it is shown that zirconium reacts with the sulfur content of molten steel in accordance with the equation Zr + 2S = ZrS2. Zirconium disulfide appears in the finished state as gray-colored inclusions, similar to manganese sulfide in plastic behavior and general appearance. Zirconium completes its act of deoxidation before proceeding to combine with sulfur and indirectly increases the effective sulfur-combining power of any manganese which may be present. IN A previous paper,1 the experimental methods used and some of the results obtained in an extensive investigation of steels containing zirconium were described. The present paper considers in greater detail one of the most interesting of these effects, namely, the elimination of "red shortness" and the occurrence in steel of a compound of zirconium and sulfur. A consideration of the actual percentages of zirconium, manganese, and sulfur in numerous steels in the light of behavior during rolling has led to new conclusions of the most practical import regarding the reciprocal relationships of these elements. The microscopic examination of high-sulfur steels containing zirconium has also been productive of interesting results. Before discussing the experimental data in question, it may be stated, briefly, that the reaction between zirconium and sulfur in molten steel may he represented by the simple equation, Zr + 2S = ZrS2, and that the zirconium sulfide thus formed occurs in the finished steel in the form of gray-colored inclusions, closely resembling manganese sulfide and, like the latter, exhibiting plasticity at rolling temperatures. Molten steel containing zirconium retains such a negligibly small amount of oxygen in solution that the foregoing reaction goes to completion.

Jan 2, 1924

By H. E. Rorschach

Activity in the oil and gas fields of Oklahoma was more pronounced in 1935 than in 1934, with 2320 completions, an increase of about 21 per cent. The state produced approximately 185,000,000 bbl. in 1935. Osage County and shallow pools in northeastern Oklahoma showed considerable activity. The assembly of a complete table of the oil fields of the state (Table 1) was not achieved, as many of the early records of operators and pipe line companies are not complete, and data for the older fields will perhaps never be fully tabulated. Table 1 includes all of the new fields and most of the important fields of the State of Oklahoma. Increased Field Activities The discovery of large production in the deep Simpson group in the old Fox field in Carter County in the southern part of the state, the discovery of new producing horizons in the Fitts pool, and the extension of Wilcox production in the "Mansion" area at Oklahoma City were the outstanding developments in Oklahoma in 1935. Wildcatting resulted in the discovery of new pools such as Jesse, Hoyt, Grayson, South Keokuk, Wofford, Britton and Stillwater. The Fitts and Edmond pools were rapidly developed during the year. Fox Pool.—Deep production in southern Oklahoma became a reality in October when the Williams No. 1 well of Carter Oil Co. and others, in the Fox pool, began producing oil at the rate of 10,000 bbl. per day from a depth of 8088 ft. After flowing wild several days, the well was killed after pipe stuck and a difficult fishing job resulted. The job had not been completed at the end of the year 1935. This test, considered one of the most important oil discoveries in the Mid-Continent area, opened the entire South Oklahoma area to a deep exploration campaign for Simpson production and production in the Pennsylvanian series on the south flank of the Arbuckle Mountains.

Jan 1, 1936

By H. E. Rorschach

Activity in the oil and gas fields of Oklahoma was more pronounced in 1935 than in 1934, with 2320 completions, an increase of about 21 per cent. The state produced approximately 185,000,000 bbl. in 1935. Osage County and shallow pools in northeastern Oklahoma showed considerable activity. The assembly of a complete table of the oil fields of the state (Table 1) was not achieved, as many of the early records of operators and pipe line companies are not complete, and data for the older fields will perhaps never be fully tabulated. Table 1 includes all of the new fields and most of the important fields of the State of Oklahoma. Increased Field Activities The discovery of large production in the deep Simpson group in the old Fox field in Carter County in the southern part of the state, the discovery of new producing horizons in the Fitts pool, and the extension of Wilcox production in the "Mansion" area at Oklahoma City were the outstanding developments in Oklahoma in 1935. Wildcatting resulted in the discovery of new pools such as Jesse, Hoyt, Grayson, South Keokuk, Wofford, Britton and Stillwater. The Fitts and Edmond pools were rapidly developed during the year. Fox Pool.—Deep production in southern Oklahoma became a reality in October when the Williams No. 1 well of Carter Oil Co. and others, in the Fox pool, began producing oil at the rate of 10,000 bbl. per day from a depth of 8088 ft. After flowing wild several days, the well was killed after pipe stuck and a difficult fishing job resulted. The job had not been completed at the end of the year 1935. This test, considered one of the most important oil discoveries in the Mid-Continent area, opened the entire South Oklahoma area to a deep exploration campaign for Simpson production and production in the Pennsylvanian series on the south flank of the Arbuckle Mountains.

Jan 1, 1936

By Henry Morris

AS STATED last year, in a similar review by David White and the author, any review of the petroleum industry purporting to cover such a wide field can only mention the principal facts. This incompleteness is necessitated not only by the limitations of space, but by the delay in receiving detailed information. The principal feature of the year, in Europe, was a material increase in the consumption of petroleum products, and a notable decline in prices. Although there we relative increases in production in Roumania and Poland, the total did not by any means keep pace with the increase in consumption, which, as usual, was supplied "from America and both the Near and Far East. The interest in Asiatic production, as usual, centers around the Persian fields, which, according to the annual report of the Anglo-Persian Oil Co. published at the close of last year, it was estimated would amount to 3,775,000 tons by the close of the fiscal year, March 1, 1924. Russia also showed an increase in production. In Africa there was nothing of outstanding interest in production, although Egypt showed a decrease and the goverment refinery at Port Said was closed.

Jan 3, 1924

By H. E. Rorschach

Activity in Oklahoma oil fields made 1937 one of the best years since 1926. During the year, 3454 wells were completed, an increase of about 25 per cent over the year 1936. Purchasers reports filed with the Corporation Commission of the State of Oklahoma showed a total of 221,842,-788 bbl. of oil purchased from leases in 1937, an increase of about 10 per cent over 1936. The assembly of a complete table of all of the oil fields in Oklahoma has not yet been achieved. Many of the early records of operators and pipe-line companies are incomplete. Table 1 includes all of the new fields, and this year there has been added work done covering pools discovered in previous years, so that most of the important fields in the state of Oklahoma are included therein. The outstanding development of the year was the discovery of the producing horizon classified as the Wilcox in western Payne County by the Mid-Continent Petroleum Corporation on a unitized block in sec. 18, Tp. 18 N., R. 2 E. This block is operated hy the Mid-Continent and owned in conjunction with the Carter Oil Co., Transwestern Oil Co. and Sinclair-Prairie Oil Co. Another important development of the year was the extension of the deep zone in the old Fox-Milroy area of Carter and Stephens Counties. Some of the other discoveries made during the year 1937 are South Cromwell, discovered by Sinclair-Prairie Oil Co.; Cromwell extension of the Fitts pool in Pontotoc County; discovery of the Langston area in Logan County; discovery of the Sporn area in Lincoln County by Skelly Oil Co. and the discovery of the North Wellston area in Lincoln County by Standard Oil & Gas Co. Table 2 shows the new oil areas discovered in Oklahoma during the year 1937 and areas that were discovered in 1936 but developed in 1937. Fox-Milroy Area.—Three wells were completed to the deep producing zone during the year. One of the wells completed in the early part of the year uas the Carter Oil Company's No. 1 Harley in sec. 24, Tp. 2 S., R. 4 W., 3 1/2 miles northwest of the original discovery well, the Ruth

Jan 1, 1938

By F. S. Pettit

The oxidation of Ni-3 to 25 wt pd Al alloys has been studied in 0. 1 atm of oxygen at temperatures between 900° and 1300°C. These alloys have been found to oxidize by three different mechanisms which depend on the temperature of- oxidation and the alloy composition. Two of the three mechanisms do not permit a continuous layer of Al,0, to be formed on the alloy surface and the oxidation rates are greater than that for pure nickel. The third mechanism results in the formation of an external A1203 scale and lke oxidation rates are about three orders of magnitude smaller than those for pure nickel. The minimum amount of aluminum required for the formation of external scales of A L,0, has been determined. NICKEL-base alloys are currently the main source of materials for use at elevated temperatures in gas turbine engines. These alloys are usually coated to obtain oxidation resistance. Coatings on nickel-base alloys are frequently formed by reaction of the alloy with aluminum whereby alloyed nickel aluminides are formed. The alloyed nickel aluminides provide protection to the nickel base alloy because external scales of A1203 (alumina) are formed during oxidation and mass transport through A120, is slow in comparison to mass transport through most other oxides. In view of the protective properties of A1203, it is important to know how much aluminum is required in these alloys in order to form external scales of AlzO,. The present paper is concerned with the oxidation kinetics and the oxidation mechanisms of Ni-A1 alloys and the minimum amount of aluminum required in these alloys for the formation of external scales of Alz03. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS When a Ni-A1 alloy is heated in oxygen at elevated temperatures, the following reactions can take place on the surface of the alloy where the oxide phases are assumed to be virtually pure: These oxide phases are in the form of nuclei scattered over the surface of the alloy and, in view of their rapid formation, they need not be in equilibrium with the alloy. As the oxidation process continues, equilibrium between the alloy surface and the oxide phases is approached and the stability of the oxide nuclei is determined by the composition of the alloy at the alloy/oxide interface because of the following reactions: 3NiA1204 + 2A1 (alloy) = 4AlzO3 + 3Ni (alloy) [41 4Ni0 + 2Al (alloy) = NiA120, + 3Ni (alloy) [ 5 1 Application of the mass-action law to Eqs. [4J and [5J yields the following equilibrium conditions for these reactions: where aA1 and aNi are the activities of aluminum and nickel, are the standard free energies of formation of NiO, A1203, and NA1204, respectively, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. If the composition of the alloy at the alloy/oxide interface is such that (akl/ahi) is greater than the equilibrium values defined by Eqs. [6] and [7], then Reactions (41 and [5] will go to the right as written. Conversely, if the alloy composition is such that the activity ratio (aLl,/aki) at the alloy/oxide interface is less than the equilibrium values, then Reactions [4] and [5] will proceed to the left. The equilibrium activity ratios in Eqs. [6] and 171 can be calculated since values for the standard free energies of formation of the oxide phases are available. Standard free energies of formation for NiO and A1203 have been tabulated by Elliott and ~leiser.' The standard free energy of formation for NiA1204 can be obtained from the data of Tretjakow and Schmalzried.' The results of these calculations are tabulated in Table I. Table I shows that the following inequality is valid over the temperature interval 900" to 1300°C: (Reaction [5]) (Reaction [4]) « 1and therefore the aluminum activity for these compositions can be taken as equal to the square root of the activity ratios (i.e., aNi = 1). If equilibrium is estab-

Jan 1, 1968

By R. L. Ash, R. R. Rollins, C. J. Konya

An investigation was performed to determine conditions for optimizing the spacing of simultaneously initiated multiple explosive columns. This was done by using models of mortar, dolomite, and Plexiglas with 10-grain mild detonating fuse as the explosive charge. It was desired to simulate blastholes with multiple primers initiated by detonating fuse or when high-velocity explosives are used in low-velocity materials. It was found that optimum spacing between multiple charges was strongly influenced by charge length. At less than optimum charge length, the spacing at which complete shearing was possible between adjacent charges decreased exponentially with a subsequent loss of broken material volume. For charges fired simultaneously, larger burdens and spacings were possible as compared to those necessary for single-crater charges. For each material studied, there was a characteristic optimum charge length and a maximum attainable spacing at any given burden. Proper selection of the spacing distance between charges is fundamental to successful blasting. Its value directly affects the cost of drilling and explosives used per unit of broken material. In addition, the choice of a spacing that is Compatible with a given set of blasting conditions aids in the control of fragmentation sizing, ground vibrations, overbreak, and throw which in turn, influence other production costs. For example, normally loaded blastholes that are spaced too closely invariably promote overbreak and usually give coarse fragmentation. Unless care is taken, airblast and violent flyrock will occur and under certain conditions cutoffs and misfires may result. Too large a spacing, on the other hand, frequently leads to conditions that form bootlegs or toes. The choice of a particular spacicg to use, however, is largely a matter of individual experience and judgment, usually based on trial and error. Very little is known or can be found in the literature with regard to how the spacing between charges is related to field conditions and charge geometry. As a general rule, the firing time sequence of adjacent charges and properties of a material are thought to have the most significant influence on the spacing distance best suited for any given field condition. For example, delayed initiation of adjacent charges usually always requires a closer spacing than when charges are fired at the same time. This should be expected if one considers that the energy normally dissipated and lost in the surrounding ground from charges fired independently would be captured and utilized for breaking material between charges when they are initiated together. Spacing can be extended also when charges are aligned with structural planes of a material, such as jointing, along which shearing is relatively easy. It is customary to relate the spacing (S) between charges to their common burden (B) in the form of a spacing ratio, or SIB. The burden normally is considered as the optimum depth or distance from any single charge perpendicular to the nearest free or open face at which the desired fragmentation and maximum crater yield are obtained. For production blasting, value of the ratio is generally considered to vary from 1 to 2, depending on conditions.1-6 When adjacent charges are fired independent of one another, the value varies from 1 to about 1.4, the closer amount being employed to square corners or produce craters having the ideal 90" apex angle. The larger ratio is the geometric balance value for craters having an apex angle of 135". The basic ideal crater forms in the plane of the charge diameter for charges fired independently are shown in Fig. 1. In the event charges are fired simultaneously, geometric balance in the plane of their charge diameters suggests that a spacing ratio near 2 would be appropriate, as illustrated by Fig. 2. In practice, however, some compromise ratio value must be selected to conform with the specific ground conditions. An example would be where the jointing planes tend to produce 60° or 120° crater angles, the appropriate geometrically balanced charge arrangement being given by Fig. 3. In this condition, the spacing ratio is 1.15, not 1 or 1.4 as suggested for the 90° cratering of independently fired adjacent charges. In view of the foregoing, it would seem logical to assume that whenever charges all having the same burden are fired at the same time, spacing distances always can be greater than those permitted by charges fired independently. In practice this is not the case, however.

Jan 1, 1970

By A. M. McQueen

Activity in the oil industry in Peru was somewhat above normal in 1928. Probably the most significant feature was the interest displayed in the oriental region in the northeast part of the country (Fig. 1). This region, though little known, has long been considered potentially rich in oil! gold, coal and other minerals, lacking only transportation to make it the country's most valuable source of income. The Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey, through its recently formed subsidiary the Standard Oil Co. of Peru, has acquired various tracts along the Maranon and Ucayali rivers in the neighborhood of the Brazilian border. Standard Oil Co. interests have had geological and surveying parties in this part of Peru since 1921, and as a result of the work done, we understand they have under lease at the present time some 2,500,000 acres of prospective oil lands. Development in the coastal region continued along normal lines during the past year. Production figures for both the International Petroleum Co. and Lobitos Oilfields show a small increase over the last few years. Total production figures since 1924 for the International Petroleum, Lobitos Oilfields and Zorritos companies, only in a minor degree estimated, are as follows: 1924, 7,924,700 bbl.; 1925, 9,138,042 bbl.; 1926, 10,750,676 bbl.; 1927, 10,110,696 bbl., and 1928, 11,969,677 barrels. International Petroleum Co., Ltd. Operations on the La Brea-Parinas Estate during 1928 continued with satisfactory results; nearly all branches showing improvement over the previous year. The average daily production for 1928 was 25,966 bbl., compared with 21,282 bbl. for 1927, an increase of 22 per cent. During the last two or three years, production methods on the company's property have been improved in line with the advance in scientific technique throughout the oil fields of the United States. Extensive investments were made in compressor equipment for handling surplus gas with the result that the gas-lift and repressuring operations are in no small way responsible for the increase in the 1928 production. In addition, the company's three casinghead plants produced 24,847,708 gal. of gasoline compared with 17,240,865 gal. in the previous year.

Jan 1, 1929

By J. Brian Eby

The Gulf Coast area of Louisiana enjoyed a particularly active and profitable year in 1939. Fifteen new producing structures were located and approximately sixty new producing sand horizons in old fields were opened in that period of time. The most important new discoveries are the Eola field, Avoyelles Parish, and the Paradis, St. Charles Parish. The Eola strike was indicated during December 1938, but the well was not placed on production until January 1939. Eola is particularly important because it was the first discovery of oil in a commercial quantity in the Wilcox formation in that area. Sid Richardson, of Ft. Worth, Texas, drilled the first well on the Haas Investment Company's property, which encountered the producing sand at a little below 8500 ft. Within the year 48 wells were drilled, 42 being commercial producers and 6 dry holes. The second most favorable discovery was the Paradis field, which was discovered by The Texas Company's Louisiana Land and Exploration Company's Paradis No. 1 well, in St. Charles Parish, just west of New Orleans. Detailed information concerning this field has not yet been made available but it is reported that the oil sand is as much as 175 ft. thick. The initial production indicated was 1750 bbl. daily and reports suggest a very large structure. In Calcasieu Parish the Humble Oil and Refining Company's Edge-wood Land No. 1 discovered gas in the Oligocene at a total depth of 7042 ft., in the Perkins area. Although two additional dry holes have been drilled in this prospect, it is still believed to have some merit. A new discovery is credited to Cameron Parish with the finding of Miocene oil in the Superior Oil Company's State No. 1 well in Grand Lake. The Chalkley field, Cameron Parish, is credited as a 1938 discovery but was largely developed in 1939 into one of the more important new fields. During the year 13 wells were drilled, 8 being oil wells and 5 dry holes. The oil is found in the Oligocene at depths of approximately 9000 feet.

Jan 1, 1940

By J. Brian Eby

The Gulf Coast area of Louisiana enjoyed a particularly active and profitable year in 1939. Fifteen new producing structures were located and approximately sixty new producing sand horizons in old fields were opened in that period of time. The most important new discoveries are the Eola field, Avoyelles Parish, and the Paradis, St. Charles Parish. The Eola strike was indicated during December 1938, but the well was not placed on production until January 1939. Eola is particularly important because it was the first discovery of oil in a commercial quantity in the Wilcox formation in that area. Sid Richardson, of Ft. Worth, Texas, drilled the first well on the Haas Investment Company's property, which encountered the producing sand at a little below 8500 ft. Within the year 48 wells were drilled, 42 being commercial producers and 6 dry holes. The second most favorable discovery was the Paradis field, which was discovered by The Texas Company's Louisiana Land and Exploration Company's Paradis No. 1 well, in St. Charles Parish, just west of New Orleans. Detailed information concerning this field has not yet been made available but it is reported that the oil sand is as much as 175 ft. thick. The initial production indicated was 1750 bbl. daily and reports suggest a very large structure. In Calcasieu Parish the Humble Oil and Refining Company's Edge-wood Land No. 1 discovered gas in the Oligocene at a total depth of 7042 ft., in the Perkins area. Although two additional dry holes have been drilled in this prospect, it is still believed to have some merit. A new discovery is credited to Cameron Parish with the finding of Miocene oil in the Superior Oil Company's State No. 1 well in Grand Lake. The Chalkley field, Cameron Parish, is credited as a 1938 discovery but was largely developed in 1939 into one of the more important new fields. During the year 13 wells were drilled, 8 being oil wells and 5 dry holes. The oil is found in the Oligocene at depths of approximately 9000 feet.

Jan 1, 1940

By R. F. Mehl, C. S. Barrett, A. H. Geisler

THE mechanism by which the super-saturated solid solution of 20 per cent silver in aluminum decomposes has been reported in two previous publications. 1,2 The analysis of streaks in Laue photograms showed that thin platelike particles (the so-called Guinier-Preston aggregates) form upon {111} matrix planes in the early state of decomposition.1 The size of these particles is larger, the higher the temperature at which they form in accordance with nucleation theory;3 at all temperatures they increase in size with aging.2 When they have grown thick enough to afford three-dimensional diffraction, powder X-ray photograms show that the structure is not that of the equilibrium precipitate y but that of a transition lattice ?'. Since this is also platelike in shape and also lies upon the {111} matrix planes with the {110} direction in the matrix parallel to the {11.0} direction in ?', it seems likely that the original platelet particles are merely ?' in an early stage of formation, and thus finely dispersed. The atomic spacing and pattern on the {00.0} plane in ?' are identical with those on the {111} matrix plane to which it lies parallel, and since comparable directions in the two planes are parallel, the lattices are thus coherent at the interface; an analogous coherence has been found in aluminum-copper alloys.3 The structures ?' and y are both close-packed hexagonal and are oriented alike; they differ only in interatomic distances. Consequently, ? ' is regarded as y strained from its ordinary dimensions by the lattice coherency between it and the matrix.2 The lattice movements that transform the matrix to the equilibrium precipitate appear to be very simple.2 The mechanism of precipitation in this system is simpler and is more precisely known than that in any other system,2,4 hence the system should be a profitable one for the difficult task of correlating property changes with structural alterations. The present report provides additional studies on powder X-ray diffraction from alloys of 10 per cent, 20 per cent and 30 per cent Ag, and presents the correlation of crystallographic changes with changes in microstructure, Brinell hardness and electrical resistivity of the three alloys. PREPARATION OF SAMPLES AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The preparation of the 20.2 per cent Ag alloy has been described.2 Alloys containing 9.9 and 29.7 per cent Ag were prepared from 99.97 per cent Al and 99.99+ per cent Ag using a similar procedure. Rolled

Jan 1, 1943

By C. E. Lesher

Low-TEMPERATURE carbonization needs no introduction to the literature on coal. This paper will attempt no review of that literature; it tells the story of the commercial development of one of the processes for carbonizing coal at so-called low temperatures, dealing with the technology and economics of the process rather than with the design of equipment. The process used is that covered by the patents of C. B. Wisner, with improvements and changes made by the Pittsburgh Coal Carbonization Co. The important and novel feature of the process is the phenomenon of making the product in ball form (Fig. 1). Melting coal dust into smokeless solid fuel in an apparatus as simple as a revolving cylinder of ordinary mild steel has been proved to be practical. Furthermore, it has been found that the process has a wide application, for by applying a knowledge of why and how this balling action is accomplished, the apparatus can be designed and adapted to treat any coal that has a certain minimum agglutinating property. The operating plant is 20 miles west of Pittsburgh, adjacent to the Champion preparation plant of the Pittsburgh Coal Co. The coal used is cleaned minus 3/8 -in- or finer sizes. The products are low-tem-perature coke, tar and tar products. Present capacity is 7000 tons per month of low-temperature coke and 140,000 gal, of tar. There is no surplus gas for sale, and none of the light oils are stripped from the gas. The coke is marketed in two sizes, 1 to 2 in. and 1 to 6 in., through retail coal dealers for domestic con-sumption in hand-fired furnaces, and for fireplace fuel. The smaller size is bagged by dealers. Crude tar and many distillates and road tars are sold.

Jan 1, 1940

By Frank C. Greene

Drilling for oil and gas in Missouri continued at a slightly lower rate than has been prevailing. A summary of operations for the past few years as compiled and published by the Missouri Geological Survey and Water Resources is as follows: Two oil pools are being developed in Cass County. Neither area has been drilled completely, and detailed descriptions will not be given at this time. In the Endicott pool in the southern part of T. 44 N., R. 33 W., oil is found in the Warrensburg sand, which is now considered to be the Big Lake sand of eastern Kansas. The top of the sand is about 125 ft. below the Herthalimestone. The best well is reported to have made 14 bbl. per day for the first four days. The oil is 30" to 32' BB. gravity. This is the only pool in the state, aside from the older areas on the east and west edges of Lees Summit, Jackson County, that is producing oil from the Warrensburg sand. Drilling continues in the Knoche pool in the central part of T. 46 N., R. 33 W., where the oil is found in the Squirrel sand. The oil produced by both these pools is sold by truck in Kansas City.

Jan 1, 1937

By L. L. Foley, C. V. Millikan

The discovery of Bromide production in the Fitts field, shallow production in Jackson County of Southwestern Oklahoma, abundant production in the Edmond field, and discovery of many small pools in all parts of the state, were the events that made petroleum history in Oklahoma in 1934. Wildcatting was much more active, as evidenced by a number of new discoveries. There was no important development in the older fields. The rapid decline of the potential of the Oklahoma City field was an important feature of the history of the year. The accompanying tabulation of oil fields (Table 1) is not complete. Many of the early records of operators and pipe line companies are lost and it will be impossible to work up complete statistics for a number of the older fields. The table includes most of the important fields of the state and includes fields of a number of different types. It is hoped that a great many additional fields may be worked up for next year's report. Fitts Pool.—The Fitts pool, in Pontotoc County, was discovered in 1933. Before the middle of 1934, the Pennsylvanian sands yielded -some oil at depths ranging from 1400 to 2800 ft. The Hunton series (Siluro-Devonian) produced most of the oil with considerable gas. In July, 1934, a well in sec. 25, T.2N., R.6E. was completed in the Bromide (Ordovician " Wilcox ") with an initial production of about 300 bbl. a day. Less than a month later a second Bromide sand well was completed in sec. 30, T.2N., R.7E., which made over 200 bbl. an hour. This started an active drilling campaign, which was accelerated when some of the major companies paid good prices for adjacent acreage. At the end of the year, 23 wells had been completed and the rate of development was increasing rapidly. It is a major oil field. The Fitts pool opened a new geological province for oil production. The structure is a faulted anticline in a graben. The producing formation (Bromide) and the Arbuckle lime below it crop out about 2 miles south of present production. The Hunton lime crops out about 2½ miles north. The field is in a sharply folded and faulted area on the northeast side of the Arbuckle uplift. Heretofore, it was generally considered not favorable for oil production, although some gas had been found in various places. The play has extended east into the McAlester coal basin, and southeast toward the

Jan 1, 1935

By F. Hulsmeir

The increase in drilling activities in Venezuela noted during the latter half of 1932 continued, and 132 wells were completed in 1933 as compared to only 60 completed during 1932. Notwithstanding these new wells, 114 of which were producers, and also the appreciable increase in artificial lifting installations during the year, Venezuelan production was maintained at only a slightly higher level than in 1932, amounting to 120,356,000 bbl. in 1933 as compared to 118,167,000 bbl. in 1932. However, at the end of the year the daily average production of 358,-860 bbl. was 16 per cent higher than that at the end of 1932. Exports from Venezuela recorded an increase of approximately 4 per cent, totaling

Jan 1, 1934

By Gordon W. Hodgson, Edward Tipman

INT'RODUCTION An appreciable number of the oil fields in Western Canada are accumulations of heavy black oils in more or less unconsolidated sandstones. When the crude oils are produced by conventional means, they are frequently contaminated with both sand and oilfield water. The water is usually present as emulsified water, and the sand and other solid materials are suspended in the emulsions. The presence of the solid material in the crude oils is troublesome and, in general, little is known about the behavior of suspended solid particles in emulsions. The Stokes equation describes the behavior of suspended particles in homogeneous fluids in terms of particle size, density differential, and fluid viscosity. In the case of an emulsion, particle size and density differential introduce no difficulties, but considerable doubt centers around the viscosity term. It has been reported1 that the viscosity of an emulsion is related to the viscosity of the continuous phase by an expression of the type: n = a, (1 + a C) where n is the viscosity of the emulsion, n,, is the viscosity of the continuous phase, a is a constant, C' is the volume concentration of the disperse phase. The value of 17, the coefficient of the concentration term, has been determined for various systems, and has been found to vary from a value of 1 to 4.75. The value of 2.5 has been found to be applicable to a large number of systems, and this is the value that is widely used in the equation which then becomes the Einstein equation for the viscosity of emuls~ons. It is of considerable significance that neither the particle size nor the viscosity of the disperse phase enters the expression; the expression for the viscosity of the enlulsion is based solely upon the viscosity of the continuous phase and the concentration of the disperse phase. For crude oil emulsions the Simha equation and the data presented by Fukushima and lchimurai show a non-linear dependence of the viscosity ratio on the water concentration. While it is undoubtedly reasonable to use these data for predicting the viscosity of a specific emulsion, and while it is equally reasonable to expect the calculated viscosity to predict the settling rate of a solid spherical particle in the emulsion by means of Stokes equation, there seems to be no direct evidence that this calculation is indeed sound for describing the settling rates of solid particles in emulsions of water in crude oils. PROCEDURE A direct approach to the problem was thus indicated. Laboratory equipment was designed and built for the direct determination of the rate-of-fall characteristics of solid particles in emulsions of water in oil. Although the apparatus incorporated the basic design of conventional falling-ball viscometers, the study was concerned directly with the rate-of-fall characteristics of particles in emulsions, rather than with the viscosity of the emulsions as such. The crude oil used in this study was a very heavy black crude oil—the McMurray oil obtained from oil-soaked sands outcropping on the Athabasca River in northeastern Alberta. It was produced from the sands by strip mining followed by hot-water separation of the oil in the separation plant of the Alberta Government at Bitumount'. The primary plant product was a wet crude oil containing about 5 per cent solids and 35 per cent water. The final plant product was only slightly different from the native oil, having lost only about 4 per cent of its bulk as light ends during dehydration distillations. In the present investigation two kerosene dilutions of the McMurray oil were used in addition to the dry plant product. The McMurray oil contained 1.92 per cent solids. Analysis of the solids by X-ray diffraction showed the presence of kaolinite, pyrite, and illite as major constituents. with lesser amounts of quartz. Particle size of the pyrite and quartz was less than 10

Jan 1, 1957

By Frederick Becket

DOCTOR Albert Sauveur, distinguished scientist and Honorary Mem-ber of this Institute, predicted in the first Howe Memorial Lecture that the privilege of delivering this annual address would be considered a highly significant honor. The intervening years have well borne out Sauveur's prophecy. I wish to assure the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers that I also deeply appreciate this honor, recognizing at the same time the present and even more the future respon-sibilities with which it is accompanied. Several of the previous lecturers had the good fortune to attend the classes of Professor Howe and to work in his laboratories. I was similarly favored, although in my instance and to my great regret the period was all too short. However, Howe's book, published in 1903, "Iron, Steel and Other Alloys," afforded me abundant opportunity to continue these studies. How well I remember the inspiration I derived from this famous book by Howe, the metallurgical master, pioneer, and educator! Remembering that Professor Howe contributed numerous papers to The Metallographist, a magazine supported from a technical point of view by the world's pioneers in metallography, I was curious a few days ago to learn the nature of Howe's early contributions to this magazine. The first paper by Howe in the first year of The Metallographist (1898) dealt with the allotropic theory; the second also treated of allotropy, and I quote the first sentence. of that paper: The allotropic theory of the hardening of steel may, like so many other important theories, have to be accepted or rejected not on direct proof or disproof, but on the accumulation of circumstantial evidence for or against it.

Jan 1, 1938

By Morris Cohen

STAFF: Editor, Gerhard Derge Acting Editor, Paul G. Shewmon Carnegie Institute of Technology Schenley Park Pittsburgh 13, Pa. Editorial Assistant, M. A. Redmerski Production Editor, Otto T. Johnson THE METALLURGICAL SOCIETY: Karl L. Fetters, President; J.S. Smart, Jr., Past-President; R. C. Cole, Vice President; R. L. Hennebach, Treasurer; R. W. Shearman, Secretary. PUBLICATIONS COMMITTEE OF THE METALLURGICAL SOCIETY: W. O. Phil-brook, Chairman; H. L. Bishop, R. C. Cole, J. N. Hobstetter, W. A. Krivsky, E. R. Morgan, F. C. Langenberg, R. E. Lund, Paul Queneau, L. L. Seigle, R. L. Smith, and T. V. Wainwright. Review and selection of manuscripts is under the supervision of the following Publicotions Committes: Extractive Metallurgy Division: R. E. Lund, Chairman; M. E. Wadsworth, Vice Chairman; D. H. Baker, Jr., G. M. Bell, R. E. Grace, W. A. Krivsky, R. A. Lewis, Charles O'Neill, A. W. Schlechten, R. E. Shinkoskey, and W. W. Stephens. Iran and Steel Division: T. V. Wainright, Choirman; H. L. Bishop, R. E. Boni, T. E. Dancy, D. W. Murphy, Johannes M. Uys, J. B. Wogstoff, and R. G. Ward. Institute of Metals Division: J. N. Hobstetter, Chairman; P. A. Beck, J. J. Becker, G. F. Bolling, J. 0. Brittain, J. B. Clark, R. S. Davis, A. E. Dwight, R. W. Fountain, L. R. Girifolco, J. C. Gurland, H. S. Kalish, E. L. Harmon, J. J. Heger, A. A. Hendrickson, L. Himmel, J. P. Hirth, H. H. Johnson, Jr., R. R. Nosh, T. N. Rhodin, R. H. Richman, H. C. Rogers, W. Rostoker, C. Sherby, C. W. Spencer, L. Slifkin, J. K. Stanley, R. Steinitz, H. C. Stumpf, and R. Swalin. Published bimonthly by the Americon Institute of Mining, Metallurgicol, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc., 345 East 47th Street, New York 17, N. Y. Telephone PLaza 2-6800. Subscription $30 peryear for non-AIME members in United States and North, South, and Centrol America; $32, foreign; $30per$7.50 for AlME members. Single copies, $6.00, single copies foreign, $6.50. The AlME is not responsible for any stotement made or opinion expressed in its publications ... Copyright 1962 by the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc. . . . Registered cable address, AlME New York . . . Indexed in Engineering Index, Industrial Arts Index, and Chemical Abstracts . . . Second class postage paid at New York, N. Y., and Ann Arbor, Mich. Volume 224, Number 4.

Jan 1, 1962