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By Oliver C. Fursman

The Bureau of Mines undertook this investigation in order to determine the feasibility of producing commercially acceptable alumina and iron by application of the Pedersen process to high-silica, high-titania, ferruginous bauxites of the Pacific Northwest. Calcium aluminate slags were produced by smelting bauxite with coke and lime in an electric-arc furnace. Over 90 percent of the total alumina can be extracted by sodium carbonate solution from slags of properly controlled ternary-phase composition (CaO-Al203-SiO2) that are cooled slowly enough to permit adequate crystallization of the 2CaO-SiO2 and the calcium aluminate compounds. Most of the iron charged was recovered in the regulus; the slag contained about 2 percent iron (as iron oxide), regardless of smelting time.

Jan 1, 1968

By Carlton E. Brown

Sand, which is used widely under the wheels of mine locomotives to prevent slipping, is an important source of silica dust breathed by some employees of certain mines, such as those having appreciable grades on haulageways. The sand, as received, contains dust, and other dust is produced by passage of wheels of the train over the sand. Dust is disseminated into the air by such means as handling during unloading, drying, transporting, underground, sprinkling on the rails, passage of trains over Sections where sand is being or has been used, and walking over deposits of sand (or the dust thereof) on the haulageway. The disseminated dust is inhaled not only by persons in the immediate vicinity but also by others to whom the contaminated air travels. The inhalation of this must should be prevented to eliminate any possibility of the material causing silicosis (sometimes referred to as miners' consumption, miners' asthma, miners' phthiris, or miners' lung) and defined by the American Public Health Association4/ as: A disease due to breathing air containing silica (Si02), characterized anatomically by generalized fibrotic changes and the development of miliary nodulation in both lungs, and clinically by shortness of breath, decreased chest expansion, lessened capacity for worm, absence of fever, increased susceptibility to tuberculosis (some or all of which symptoms may be present), and by characteristic X-ray finding.

Jan 1, 1944

By Doris M. Hyde

In the past, mining has represented between 11% and 12% of the gross domestic product (GDP). In 1982, mining contributed over $150 million to the estimated $1.4 billion GDP.2 Overall economic growth for 1983 was projected at about 2%, primarily as a result of increased tourism. The inflation rate remained at or fell below the 1982 level of almost 4%. The Government continued its efforts to strengthen the industrial base by improving infrastructural systems and the establishment of a free trade zone. Laws against property ownership by foreigners or foreign-owned companies were strengthened, but the prohibition was softened to allow for close family inheritance. Otherwise, Government approval must be obtained to retain property acquired through inheritance, court order, mortgage, or other means. Special consideration was granted to foreign investors seeking to promote industries beneficial to the economy.

Jan 1, 1985

By D. D. Blue

To insure domestic production of aluminium for, essential civilian and defense uses, the Government, under authority of the Defense Production Act of 1950, programed and promoted an aluminum-expansion program that will more than double the primary production capacity that existed in 1949. In view of this vastly increased production, the raw materials, with respect to both quantity and sources, are reviewed. The raw-material consumption pattern, the requirements during an expansion period when excess quantities of materials for starting up new facilities are consumed, and the probable requirements for production of 1.7 million tons per year of primary aluminum are discussed. The raw materials that presented the most difficult supply problems were bauxite, electrical power, and fluoride salts, and the supply pattern for these materials probably will undergo changes. A major part of the electrical energy for the increased capacity was to come from thermal generation, Jamaica-was to become a major source of bauxite, and synthetic fluoride salts were replacing natural cryolite in increasing quantities. Other raw-material requirements discussed are: Soda ash; lime, and limestone; starch; filter cloth; fuel; alumina; the carbonaceous materials, green and calcined petroleum coke, high-and low-temperature pitch and coke or anthracite; cryolite; aluminum fluoride; the materials going into production of synthetic fluorides, acid-grade fluorspar, and sulfuric acid; and labor. INTRODUCTION The raw materials for the aluminum industry that have received the most publicity are bauxite, the ore that supplies elemental aluminum, and electrical energy, the means by which aluminum oxide is reduced to metal. A number of other important materials are, however, required in large quantities in the production of primary aluminum metal.

Jan 1, 1954

By K. Y. Haramy

Coal mine bumps involve the violent, rapid failure of coal and rock around a mine excavation. Deep coal mines with strong roof and floor rocks and high-stress conditions frequently experience face and rib bumps. The bump problem is becoming more severe as mining depth increases, prompting efforts to control high stress in advance of mining. This Bureau of Mines report presents a review of the most widely used methods to detect and destress high-stress zones along coal faces and an investigation of stress-related bump problems and destressing techniques at a cooperating mine. Geotechnical instrumentation and microseismic methods were used to better understand bump occurrences in underground coal mines. Laboratory tests of the drilling-yield method for high-stress detection were conducted to determine the correlation between the volume of cuttings obtained and the magnitude of the applied stress at various confining pressures. A three-dimensional, multiple-seam computer modeling program, MULSIM, was used to evaluate the effectiveness of stress-relief methods. Modeling results indicate that dangerously high-stress areas can be controlled by either proper planning or destressing. Proper mine planning guidelines and destressing methods such as volley firing, hydraulic fracturing, and auger drilling are discussed.

Jan 1, 1988

By Foster Fraas

One of the lithium minerals most widespread in the earth's surface is spodumene (Li2O-A1203-4Si02) a lithium aluminium silicate. For some time, deposits of this mineral were known to exist in the Black Rills of South Dakota, but it was only quite recently that Hess4/ pointed out the great magnitude of the low-grade e deposits it s in North Carolina. The theoretical lithia (Li20) content of spodumene is 8.04 percent. The only other minerals with such high lithia content are the phosphates, but these occur only in pockets and are not in extensive deposits5/. Actually, however, the lithia content in spodumene is never found to be this high, being nearly always below 7 percent for the pure mineral, and part of the lithia is apparently replaced by other alkalies.

Jan 1, 1937

By W. P. Yant

A previous report of the Bureau of Mines dealt with the toxicity of dichlorodifluoromethane5, a new refrigerant that has a remarkably low toxicity. Continued research by the Prigidaire Corporation6 and toxicological experiments performed in the Laboratory of Applied Physiology of the University of Cincinnati7 revealed another organic fluoride, dichlorotetrafluoroethane, whose toxicity also appeared to be of a very low order and whose physical-and chemical properties make it suitable for refrigeration purposes. In addition to low toxicity, safety in its use is further enhanced by its physical properties, which permit the design of equipment that operates at comparatively low pressures and hence mitigates the dangers and problems of leakage. The investigation described in this report was performed by the Bureau of Mines at the request and with the cooperation of the Frigidaire Corporation.

Jan 1, 1932

By J. R. Thoenen

In the summer of 1937 the authors began a series of time studies of the various processes employed in' the production of crushed stone. These studies, made at quarries situated in the eastern and southeastern parts of the United States, have not been completed, but to make results available to the industry as early as possible, it was decided to publish summaries of the studies made to January 1, 1939, as a series of progress reports. The first of these dealt with power-shovel loading and was issued as Report of Investigations 3461 in September 1939. The second, issued in September 1939 as Report of Investigations 3467, dealt with quarry haulage. The present report discusses analyses of time studies of primary drilling at the same group of quarries. OBJECT Or STUDY Pressure of business problems frequently requires the entire attention of quarry management, and in consequence internal plant economies often are neglected. Also, operating officials absorbed in their local problems are prone to overlook possible economies that would attract attention immediately were they critically examining another plant. The authors felt that technical studies at a number of plants, made by impartial engineers, might disclose opportunities to reduce costs or improve efficiency in internal plant processes.

Jan 1, 1940

By G. W. Jones

The results presented in this report deal with the elimination of explosion hazards of ether-oxygen mixtures by the addition of helium. The method is based upon the fact that every combustible gas, vapor, or dust will not burn or explode when the oxygen content of the mixture is reduced below certain definite values. These critical oxygen values are usually different for each combustible, varying with the percentage of the combustible present in the mixture and also with the inert gaseous material used to reduce the oxygen content of the mixture.

Jan 1, 1941

By Wilbert J. Huff

This is the sixth of a series of annual reports describing the work of the Explosives Division, Bureau of Mines, United States Department of the Interior.3/ It deals particularly with the activities of the division from July 1, 1940 to June 30, 1941. The studies outlined in this and preceding reports of the series have been conducted under the direction of the author and the respective unit leaders, to whom specific credit is given.

Jan 1, 1942

By Wilbert J. Huff

This is the sixth of a series of annual reports describing the work of the? Explosives Division, Bureau of Mines, United States Department of the Interior.3/ It deals particularly with the activities of the division from July 1, 1940, to June 30, 1941. The studies outlined in this and preceding reports of the series have been conducted under the direction of the author and the respective unit leaders, to whom specific credit is given.

Jan 1, 1942

By E. R. Spencer, D. R. Babich, L. A. Alcorn, A. K. Smith

Noise is one of the most pervasive health hazards in mining. A compilation of Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) noise survey data for fiscal year 1990 shows that approximately 40% of the total samples taken for longwall occupations exceeded the Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) of 100% (Gigliotti et al., 1991). To effectively determine worker noise exposures on longwall coal mining systems, it is necessary to provide accurate baseline measurements for these mining systems. This research was designed to develop measurement methods and test procedures for identifying noise sources that are major contributors to the underground noise exposure of longwall coal mining system workers. The measurement system that was used to analyze the noise sources around a stageloader used stationary dosimeters in a documented repeatable pattern to record the sound pressure and dose levels. A time-motion study of the cutting cycle and stageloader operator’s work cycle was done to correlate the sound levels at measurement locations and the resulting operator’s daily dose with significant noise events. Results from the underground measurements show that the highest sound levels recorded were at the stageloader discharge segment and tailpiece controls, where sound levels remained about the same throughout the test.

By Howard W. Wainwright

The Bureau of Mines is engaged in a research program on the characterization of tars produced by low-temperature carbonization of coal and their economical upgrading to more valuable materials, Throughout the years, hydrogenation has played an important role in the treatment of these tars, mainly as a means of converting the whole crude tar or selected fractions to motor fuels; diesel oil, lubricating oil, or various solvents. In some instances, production of specialty chemicals has been the objective. The purpose of this report is to summarize, without critical review, the information of the past 25 years on the hydrogenation of low-temperature tars and related substances as presented in the literature or its English translation. Published articles and patents not abstracted in the main body of this report are included in a bibliography at the end. HYDROGENATION REACTIONS The hydrogenation of tar follows three general types of reactions; 1. The removal of oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen in the tar to form water, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia, respectively: [ ]

Jan 1, 1961

By Albert L. Toenges

A phase in strip mining of bituminous coal is the overturning of the surface of the land. The ;purpose of this report is to acquaint the operators and others interested in stripping with the work that has been done in certain States to reclaim the surface of land from which the coal has been removed by this method of mining. The preparation of this manuscript follows an extensive study of the subject in the field in the course of which a large number of strip mines were visited. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The information used in the report was obtained through the courtesy and cooperation of the operators of the mines visited, State officials and educational institutions, and others interested in the subject.

Jan 1, 1939

By R. P. Maloney

Since mining operations began in 1900, Government geologists and mining men have periodically recorded the presence of the minerals of mercury and antimony in the extensive gold placer deposits near Flat in the Iditarod district of the Yukon River region, Alaska. No serious effort was made to recover the cinnabar contained in the gold placer gravels, and there is no evidence that veins of cinnabar and stibnite exposed in the placer operations (as reported by the Geological Survey) were ever explored or developed. A large monzonitic intrusive, which is the dominant geologic feature of the immediate area, is believed to be the lode source of the valuable minerals in the placer deposits. In contact with the monzonite are argillite and quartzite, metamorphic products from the Cretaceous shales and sandstones.

Jan 1, 1962

By Reynold Q. Shotts

A study was made of the coal resources of an area in Jackson County, Ala., forming a part of the Flat Rock, Henegar, and Stevenson quadrangles. The area studied is a portion of the Plateau coalfield on Sand Mountain and is near the Tennessee Valley Authority's Widows Creek steamplant. Since no detailed geological study of this area had been published, some reconnaissance work was done. The coalbeds and adjacent strata such as sandstones, conglomeratic sandstones, and conglomerates were studied. Available drill logs, together with the areal geology, provided sufficient information to permit correlation of the coalbeds and an estimation of coal reserves. For all categories of reserves, computed on a regional basis, a total of 72,920,000 tons of coal more than 14 inches thick is estimated for the areas studied in Stevenson. Flat Rock, and Henegar quadrangles. Of this tonnage, 40,001.000 tons is estimated to have less than 60 feet of overburden. The total measured coal reserves for the above three quadrangles are 16,359,000 tons, with 12,471,000 tons under less than 60 feet of cover.

Jan 1, 1966

This publication summarizes, for potential contractors and other interested parties, the research, development, and demonstration contract projects programed by the Bureau of Mines for fiscal year 1979 (October 1, 1978-September 30, 1979) under its Mine Health and Safety Research program. The objective of these projects is to provide an ordered and sequenced series of advances toward the Bureau's overall goal of providing the system technology required to create a healthier and safer working environment for the Nation's miners.

Jan 1, 1979

By D. R. Dollnar

At a mine in central PA, high horizontal stresses have caused long running roof falls resulting in hazardous conditions for the miners and the premature abandonment of panels. Because of these conditions, the mine requested assistance of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) in utilizing the 'advance and relieve method to mitigate the affects of horizontal stress on the mine roof. "Advance and relieve" mining involves the removal of a pillar or a portion of a pillar during development, thereby creating a cave along one side of the panel. Following cave development, the horizontal stress is relieved over the workings adjacent to the cave in the active panel. The mine has used this system in three panels with a significant reduction in stress damage and no large roof falls.

Jan 1, 2002

By O. Q. Leone

Excellent metal quality, with lower power requirement, is attained in electrorefining titanium by using internal heating of the fused-salt bath. An internal heater provides more effective heat utilization, simplifies structural components in cell design, and prolongs cell life by eliminating direct application of heat to the cell container. This Bureau of Mines report covers one phase of the research in progress at the Electrometallurgical Experiment Station at Boulder City, Nev., for improving the techniques and lowering the total power requirement for electro-refining titanium metal.

Jan 1, 1959

By R. S. McClain

The Federal Bureau of Mines investigated residues from aluminum plants, to determine if carbon could be removed by flotation while recovering fluorine and aluminum compounds for recycling to the reduction process. This publication summarizes studies on samples representing three types of plant waste products, supplied by three aluminum-producing companies. Samples of flue dust, pot skimmings, and pot linings from the various plants all responded to a simple turpentine flotation scheme to reject 90 to 97 percent of the carbon. Aluminum compound recoveries ranged from 42 to 94 percent on the flue dust, were about 95 percent on the pot skimmings, and ranged from 75 to 89 percent on the pot linings. Fluorine recoveries from the same samples ranged from 35 to 63, 92 to 95, and 77 to 86 percent, respectively. The pot linings contained soluble salts of aluminum and fluorine which were recovered by precipitation with sodium aluminate and carbon dioxide gas. Composites of residues from each plant responded to flotation much the same as the individual samples. Aluminum is produced by the electrolysis of alumina in a molten cryolite bath. The electrolytic reduction cell consists of a carbon-lined box containing a pad of molten aluminum which serves as a cathode, a carbon anode, and an electrolyte of molten cryolite in which the alumina is dissolved. Alumina is reduced to aluminum at the cathode, and carbon is oxidized at the anode.

Jan 1, 1961