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By D. Tepavac, S. Simmonds

"The high virgin horizontal in situ stress field in the Sydney Basin and its impact on civil engineering projects is a well-known and accepted phenomenon found in significant literature (e.g., Pells, 2013). The prevailing high-stress effects depend on many factors — rock quality, tunnel orientation, proximity of geological features to tunnel crown, size and shape of opening, depth of excavation and stress magnitude. The behavior of the rock mass under high in situ stress conditions can cause stress fracturing and consequent dilation of the tunnel periphery, resulting in rock spalling at the tunnel crown/ invert or raveling of rock blocks on the tunnel sidewall. This type of failure is of a brittle nature and may create construction and safety risks during tunnel excavation, if it occurs behind the excavation face where ground support has already been installed. Therefore, the associated risks need to be managed during construction. This paper presents the design strategy adopted to mitigate these adverse tunneling conditions for the WestConnex Project to-date. Overview of the WestConnex M4 East and new M5 tunnel projectsWestConnex is one of the New South Wales government’s key infrastructure projects. This 33 km (20.5 mile) project aims to ease congestion and connect communities and is the largest integrated transport and urban revitalization project in Australia. It was a key recommendation of the State Infrastructure Strategy released in October 2012. It brings together a number of important road projects, which, together, form a vital link in Sydney’s Orbital Network. These road projects include a widening of the M4 east of Parramatta, a duplication of the M5 East, and new sections of motorway to provide a connection between these two key corridors. The WestConnex project includes a number of stages: Stage 1a: M4 Widening; Stage 1b: M4 East; Stage 2: New M5; and Stage 3: M4–M5 Link. The tunnel design referenced in this paper relates to Stage 1b and Stage 2 of the WestConnex Project (Fig. 1)."

Dec 1, 2018

By J. Peterson, P. G. McKneight, R. W. Riggle

"In today’s tough mining environment, the key difference between surviving and thriving is how effectively miners optimize their mining operations. This paper explores the compounding effects material fragmentation has on mining costs and productivity. Starting with Drilling & Blasting and moving through Loading, Hauling and Crushing, we will illustrate the opportunities to improve operating costs and thus reduce the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) of the total mining system. Material size and volume requirements are defined by the needs of the mill or plant, and drive the rest of the mining operation from the bench through the primary crusher. At the start of the cycle, where the rock mass is drilled and blasted, the degree of fragmentation and the muck pile configuration is determined, as are the effects on cost and productivity of all subsequent operations. The cost of managing oversize material, including secondary handling, overloading, reduced diggability, higher load factors, extra pass loading, increased wear factors and reduced throughput rates are all opportunities for improvement. INTRODUCTION Having visited many mine sites, customers are asking about the end to end mining value stream from loading to the crusher and how to measure the cumulative effects on each part of the mining value chain. All too often improvements with the drilling and blasting may impact fragmentation but do not improve the diggability so the net change on cycle times or fill ratios is perceived to be negative at the point of loading but they may have a measured improvement going through the primary crusher. This makes it imperative to measure performance at each segment of the overall cycle and not just to the crusher but thru it. The mine material process originates with solid rock, in-situ, and progresses to the output of the primary crusher. Once the material has passed the primary crusher the fragmentation size will be fairly consistent and promote consistent throughput of the plant or mill. In late 2015 a team was conducting a reassessment visit to a mining site where we had conducted the original assessment the previous year. Though many recommendations had been implemented some had been so recent they had not resulted in the expected improvements. Several of our discussions kept returning to the impact fragmentation has to both the individual components of the mining cycle but also the effects compounded throughout the end to end process. Let’s move on to the big picture before we zoom in on any specific operation. To get from native solid rock in the ground to a concentrate or a saleable rock product we have the same steps from one end of the chain to the other. We start with a good geological understanding of the rock type, characteristics and structure to design a program to drill and blast the rock. The height of the bench is relevant to the annual production requirements and the specific digging equipment models best sized to make that production possible. The equipment selection influences the bench height which has a minimum and maximum hole diameter to maintain a safe blasting operation. The diameter of hole burden and spacing all contribute to a good distribution of explosives in the rock mass that maximize the fragmentation and preconditioning of the rock when blasted. The timing and sequencing of hole initiation will yield a fragmentation ratio and diggability factor. Fragmentation size adjustments will change the meters drilled per cube and the explosives consumption will change accordingly. Drill cost is measured by meter drilled so a direct relationship exists between cost and fragmentation sized achieved."

Jan 1, 2017

By J. A. Marts, R. C. Gilmore, S. Saki, J. F. Brune

El modelamiento de la dinámica de fluidos computacional (CFD por sus siglas en inglés) implica la creación de un dominio de cálculo llamado malla o rejilla para resolver las ecuaciones que definen la física del flujo de fluidos. Este proceso comprende a menudo emplear la mayor parte del tiempo en esfuerzos de modelamiento. En un proyecto patrocinado por el Instituto Nacional de Seguridad y Salud Ocupacional (NIOSH), los investigadores de la Escuela de Minas de Colorado utilizaron un enfoque innovador de mallas, el cual permite una fácil adaptación del modelo CFD para adaptarse a una variedad de geometrías de minado de tajos largos ventilados por canales (bleeders) y progresivamente sellados (referidos a menudo como bleederless en los Estados Unidos), con la porosidad y la permeabilidad de la cámara escalables en un amplio intervalo. En este trabajo se presenta la metodología del enfoque de enmallado y escalado junto con las recomendaciones para el uso de modelos CFD en aplicaciones de ventilación para las cámaras en tajos largos. La nueva técnica de enmallado se utilizó para evaluar la función de un retorno hacia atrás en una cámara progresivamente sellada y otra cámara ventilada por canales.

Jan 1, 2014

"A commercially available Through-the-Earth (TTE) communications system was evaluated at an active underground longwall mine in West Virginia. This TTE system uses electric field (E-field) sensing to send text based communications using two separate antenna arrays connected in parallel. Each antenna array is composed of interconnected, grounded metallic rods or other such structures. Two-way communication between subsurface locations was investigated in this study using various antenna configurations. This field study was conducted as a part of a larger multi-site evaluation of available TTE systems in an effort to determine their operational sensitivity. INTRODUCTION Wireless, Through-the-Earth (TTE) communication technology is designed to achieve point to point communication through solid strata using very low frequency (VLF) and ultra-low frequency (ULF) electromagnetic waves. This ability allows TTE communication to function without the need for intermediary communications infrastructure, such as repeaters. As a result, such communication systems have the potential to provide reliable, robust communications between surface and underground personnel. Exploration into the use of TTE technology for this purpose dates back to the 1920s (Jakosky and Zellers 1924; Pittman, Church and McLendon 1985), but U.S. permissibility requirements slowed the development of TTE equipment for widespread implementation (Durkin 1980; Pittman, Church and McLendon 1985). One of the primary challenges in producing wireless TTE communications is the counteraction of signal attenuation when propagating through solid strata (Barkand, Damiano and Shumaker 2006; Wadley 1949). The long wavelengths of TTE transmissions make them well-suited for reducing the rate of attenuation. However, even when operating within the VLF to ULF range, the performance of TTE systems is still affected by geologic and anthropogenic factors (Geyer 1973; Geyer and Keller 1976; Geyer, Keller and Ohya 1974; Jakosky and Zellers 1924; Large, Ball and Farstad 1973). Although commercially developed TTE systems have demonstrated the ability to communicate through a variety of conditions, their range and performance have been highly varied (Barkand, Damiano and Shumaker 2006; Geyer and Keller 1976; Geyer, Keller and Ohya 1974; Ilsley, Freeman and Zellers 1928; Jakosky and Zellers 1924; Yenchek et al. 2012)."

Jan 1, 2016

By Matthew Deutsch

A common casualty of modern openpit mine optimization is the assurance that the resulting design is actually achievable. Optimized mine plans that consider value and a bare minimum of precedence constraints do not, in general, translate into practical, operational mine designs that can be used in the field. Ultimate pits may come to a sharp point at the bottom. Schedules may require taking small parcels of material from many disparate areas of the pit in a single period, and grade control polygons may be ragged, narrow and not minable with realistic equipment. In this paper, these three fundamental openpit mine optimization problems are addressed by encoding them as maximum satisfiability problems. Maximum satisfiability provides a useful framework for problems that are nonlinear and may guarantee the optimality that metaheuristics cannot.

In phosphate flotation, more than 90% of the finer fraction (-35, + 150 mesh) is recovered as opposed to 70% of the coarser material (-16, + 35 mesh). On the other hand, coarser fraction is higher in phosphate content than the finer feed. Consequently, improvement in the coarse recovery is highly desired. It was determined on bench scale that emulsification of the collector (fuel oil and fatty acid mixture) can lead to enhanced recovery of coarse particles. Flotation of phosphate with emulsified collector resulted in improved recovery and grade also on the plant scale.

Jan 1, 1992

By A. J. S. Spearing, B. Forbes, T. Kostecki, A. Hyett

Improving upon the past understanding of the interaction between installed rock bolts, the immediate roof and sidewalls is vital for the implementation of sound support system design, as this has a direct impact on rock-related safety. This is the primary goal in rock-bolt-related research. The earliest research in this field concentrated on limited laboratory and in situ measurements accompanied by theoretical analyses, based on the Kirsch equations. This represented the initial insight into understanding relative ground movements and their impact on primary support. However, these studies were far from complete. More recently, major technological advances in computing power within the mining industry has changed the scope from theoretical analysis to computer simulation. Even with these advancements our understanding of rock bolts in situ and in the laboratory has not progressed, particularly concerning bending and shear. To measure the behavior of rock bolts, the widely accepted practice is to populate the bolts with an array of strain gauges. Historically, resistive foil strain gauges or long displacement sensors have been used. Additionally, all instrumented rock bolts have used only two diametrically opposed slots. Rock bolts instrumented with these methods have significant shortcomings, one of which is the inability to capture shear and bending. The shearing and bending of rock bolts are particularly common in tabular soft rock mining, such as coal mining. This paper discusses the use of three slotted rock bolts, cut diametrically 120º apart, and two new optical fiber technologies populated along the entire rock-bolt length.

Jan 1, 2015

By Kathleen Lagnese, Srikanth Muddasani, Kashi Banerjee, Carla Robinson

"Mine water generated from underground coal mining operations contains both dissolved and particulate solids. Dissolved solids primarily consist of sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium, chlorides and sulfates. When discharged to a receiving stream without treatment, these constituents create a potentially toxic environment for aquatic life.A case study is presented to discuss how a centralized treatment plant treats mine water from six locations to meet discharge limitations for chlorides. Located in West Virginia, this facility consistently achieves less than the National Pollutant Discharge Elemenation System (NPDES) permit limitation of 218 mg/L chlorides in the discharge while generating almost zero liquid waste. The dissolved solids concentration in the influent ranges between 5,000 and 10,000 mg/L, with chloride concentrations of 1,000 to 2,000 mg/L and sulfate concentrations of 2,000 to 6,000 mg/L.The mine water is treated using advanced treatment technology to produce clean water for discharge or reuse. The treatment process comprises aeration, softening, filtration, reverse osmosis (RO) reject softening, evaporation, crystallization, final effluent remineralization and sludge dewatering. The solid waste generated in the treatment process is landfilled on site. The leachate is sent back to the facility’s thermal treatment process. Because no liquid waste leaves the property, this plant is termed a zero liquid waste (ZLW) facility.The advanced water treatment system was built to meet a new 218 mg/L regulatory limitation imposed by the West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection for chlorides discharged to surface waters. The system is designed to treat a maximum flow of approximately 795 m3/h (5 million gpd) of mine water. The treatment process utilizes RO membrane treatment to achieve the effluent criteria, and evaporation and crystallization technology to manage the RO concentrate from the water treatment process. As a result, the system produces clean water for discharge while generating zero liquid waste. The effluent water can be used for industrial purposes or discharged to a receiving stream. A water impact index (WIIx) study indicated that discharge of this high-quality water into the Monongahela River watershed may improve the water quality for downstream water users. The waste produced in the treatment process, including softening sludge and salt, is disposed of in an onsite landfill. Currently, the plant is treating at an average flow of 490 m3/h (3.1 million gpd) of mine water with an average influent chloride concentration of 1,530 mg/L and an average effluent chloride concentration of 11 mg/L."

Jan 1, 2014

By Arthur L. Raub

During the last decade, there haven't been any great innovations in the design features of a copper concentrator. What has worked well in the past continues to work well, so that major breakthroughs have been minimal. Conservatism in the ranks also plays an important part. As a copper concentrator is not designed and built everyday, Davy was elated to have an important part in this project. This is the story of the design of the oracle Ridge Project located north of Tucson on the back of Mt. Lemmon at an elevation of 5,900 feet on the N.E. slope of the Catalinas. The Oracle Ridge property, formerly known as the Control Mine, is owned by Oracle Ridge Mining Partners, a joint venture between Continental Materials Corp. of Chicago and Union Miniere of Brussels, Belgium; both or¬ganizations specializing in the non-ferrous metal industry.

Jan 1, 1979

By H. L. Monroe

Meramec Mining Company, owned 50% by St. Joseph Lead Company and 50% by Bethlehem Steel Corporation,- is engaged in the mining, concentrating and pelletizing of iron ore from the Pea Ridge Mine which is located in the rugged, wooded Missouri Ozarks about 15 miles from the town of Sullivan or 75 miles southwest of St. Louis. The orebody was delineated in the middle 1950's by the St. Joseph Lead Company during the Company's intensive exploration program to discover new lead orebodies to replace the declining reserves of the famous Southeast Missouri Lead Belt. An airborne magnetometer survey was run by the U.S. Geological Survey, the Missouri Survey and several mining companies, (of which St. Joseph Lead Company was the principal supporter). The survey was published in 1950 and disclosed an anomaly in the vicinity of Pea Ridge. In 1950 test drill holes disclosed that under some 1300 feet of sediments there did exist an iron deposit of probable commercial significance. No further action was taken until 1956 when additional drill holes confirmed beyond reasonable-doubt-that this was a major iron ore discovery.

Jan 1, 1965

By Jeffrey L. Zelms

There is no known, practical substitute for lead in the automobiles, communications systems, medical equipment and computers that Americans use every day. However, there are many who say lead should be stopped at its source -- banned. As America's largest lead producer, The Doe Run Company has ralized that it must do more than mine and reclaim lead efficiently and safely. It must also earn the public's consent to operate if it is to continue to be a viable business. LEAD - THE BRILLIANT PERFORMER: REFURBISHING AN IMAGE It's been an embarrassingly long time since I was a college student. However, I remember there was no course at the University of Missouri's School of Mines and Metallurgy that had anything to do with the public relations aspects of mining or, put another way, the politicization of mining. It's been an embarrassingly long time since I was a college student. However, I remember there was no course at the University of Missouri's School of Mines and Metallurgy that had anything to do with the public relations aspects of mining or, put another way, the politicization of mining. I haven’t perused the course catalog for Penn State’s College of Earth and Minerals Sciences. But I strongly suspect I wouldn’t find such a course there today, either. A statement by the chairman of one of the country’s largest chemical companies leads to the point I want to make. He described his business this way. He said, “We’re a public affairs company that just happens to produce and market chemicals.” Like chemicals, minerals and mining are politicized today. To the extent that we don’t understand that reality, we don’t understand that reality – and act on it – we’re less likely to survive in this business. Some of you may well be saying to yourselves, “This guy Zelms is an alarmist.” That’s fair enough. Because it is absolutely true that there’s n o known, practical substitute for lead today. And it’s also absolutely true that, knowingly or not, Americans use lead everyday. It’s in our automobile batteries. It’s an integral part of communications systems. High tech (and low tech) medical equipment contains lead. And lead is an essential component of computer and TV screens. But even with all these uses, lead has a negative image today. An image so negative that its very existence is threatened. If you doubt that, consider these two statements made in 1989. Statement one. “It is probably reasonable to argue that exposure is the single most important and critical environmental health problem in the U.S., and possibly also the world…” Statement number two. “Many of the uses of lead should be terminated. We need to go back to the ultimate source: that is, taking lead out of the ground and putting it into the product stream and we need to turn it off at the ultimate source. Not the approximate lead in gasoline, or lead in air, or lead in food. Go right back to the source and start cranking it down." (End quote.) Those are what I call strong statements. And they weren’t made by some celebrity spokesperson for the environment like Meryl Streep. Both these statements were made by Dr. Ellen Silbergeld, whose long list of professional and academic credentials includes: o Adjunct professor and research scientist at the University of Maryland Medical School and Johns Hopkins: o Chief toxic scientist and director of the Toxic Chemicals Program of the Environmental Defense fund; o and President of the Society for Occupational and Environmental Health. If Dr. Silbergeld were the only person making these kinds of statements, it would be one thing. But she’s not a voice in the wilderness, by any means. Also for those of you who say, well since there’s no known substitute for lead, how on earth could it be banned. I refer you to a number of bills before Congress that would permit the EPA to ban any product if it is determined that its

Jan 1, 1992

By Eugene W. Price

One of the most important fundamental characteristics of iron ore pellets is their porosity. This importance arises from the fact that the pores are the busy avenues whereby many changes are brought about in the life and form of the pellet from the time it is made until the iron it contains emerges as a molten stream from the blast furnace. As a green iron ore pellet is first heated in the drying cycle of a typical heat-hardening process, the pores act as conduits to allow the escape of steam from the water or vapor from the oil which served as binders to hold the green pellet together. After the release of the steam (or oil vapor) the pores then act as conduits whereby oxygen can enter the pellets to 1) convert magnetite (Fe304) to hematite (Fe203), if appropriate, and 2) promote solid state grain growth between adjacent particles of iron ore. The rate of oxidation and the rate of grain growth are directly related to pore size' and pore size distribution. Rate of oxidation is also directly influenced by length of pore and length of pore is obviously related to pellet diameter. It is well to keep in mind that the heat-hardening process does not harden the mineral grains themselves. What it does is weld them together to change the green pellet from a doughy mass, composed of thousands of tiny individual particles, into a strong, intergrown monolithic structure. In the blast furnace the pores again act as conduits for gases, but in this case they trans¬port reductants such as hydrogen (H2) and carbon monoxide (C0) which remove most of the oxygen from the ore. Rate of reduction is also directly related to pore size and pore size distribution.

Jan 1, 1967

By Harland E. Cofer

A computer-assisted resources and sedimentological study of the Andersonville, Georgia kaolin-bauxite district was begun in 1975 under a grant from the Office of Mineral Resources of the U.S. Geological Survey (Grant # 14-08-1110-G-173). A preliminary report on the kaolin and bauxite resources of the district has been placed on open file at the U.S.G.S. in Reston, Virginia; the Georgia-Geological Survey in Atlanta, Georgia; and Georgia Southwestern College in Americus, Georgia. In addition to a resources estimate, the objectives include the determination of the mineralogical variation, sedimentological parameters, and paleogeographic patterns of the deposition of the high alumina materials and their associated sediments. In the process of compiling data for the resources estimate, isopach maps were developed that provide information as to the shape, size, and distribution of the kaolin deposits and the kaolinitic sediments that contain them. These or similar maps developed for other districts can be useful exploration tools.

Jan 1, 1977

By J. Sohn

The most promising near-term alternative to fuel cell driven vehicles is probably Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV or EV) technology. HEV technology combines the best characteristics of fuel-driven engines, electric motor drives, and energy storage components. It is designed with a combustion engine that functions as the primary power source, and an electric power storage system that functions as the secondary power source. The presence of the secondary power source allows designers to size the combustion engine for cruising power requirements. A new energy source for HEV or EV market will become lithium ion batteries (LIBs) in the near future. LIBs for HEV or EV has large scale about more 10,000 times than small size one for IT devices in order to achieve high electric density/capacity and high efficiency, etc. In those reasons, physical treatment of the batteries is more difficult for stable dismantling in comparison with the smaller one. Hybrid vehicle sales will grow by nearly 400 percent during the next seven years, according to a new report from analyst firm ABI Research. By 2013 hybrids will make up 6 percent of annual U.S. auto sales. The traction battery pack will become air-cooled LIBs which consists of several modules of Li ion battery and connected in series/parallel configuration to provide about >450 VDC, >150 kW peak power, and >80 Ah capacity. As the use of these batteries tends to increase significantly for the next years, it is relevant issues that development of new recycling methods as well as optimization of existing processes to treat spent LIBs for HEV have being addressed in order to obtain sustainability. In this study, physical treatment containing stable electrical discharge of spent LIBs for HEV was carried out for recovery of valuable metals from the batteries. Also In order to increase the yield of valuable metals through physical treatments such as electric discharge of spent batteries, crushing, and classification, we also focused on the recovery of cobalt from +8 mesh fraction due to its large portion in crushed intermediates.

Jan 1, 2010

By B. Mirabile, B. Stables

Standing support is often used in conjunction with underground retreat mining. Knowledge of the load-displacement behavior of a standing support, and loading induced by the mine opening is critical to proper support selection. The NIOSH STOP database contains load-displacement laboratory test data for most commonly used standing supports. Hydraulic load cells currently used to measure in-situ loading of standing supports have exhibited leakage under load, producing irregularities within the dataset. An improved hydraulic load cell eliminates leakage and produces more consistent data. INTRODUCTION A hydraulic load cell, more commonly known by “flat jack” or JackPack, is a device installed to determine the loading characteristics of roof to floor supports. These standing or roof to floor supports include, but are not limited to: pumpable cribs, cans, wooden cribs (4-point, 9-point, etc.), metal props, wood timbers, concrete donut cribs, and other variations of these standing supports. Flat jack devices have been used previously to determine the loading of such roof to floor supports. The most commonly used load cell for standing supports is based on a design intended for pre-stressing standing supports, not load measurement. These load cells are produced in South Africa, and can be formed into several different shapes depending on the applications (Barczak). Flat Jacks are manufactured in various shapes and sizes depending on the application, common shapes are square and round that are 25.4 mm (1.0 inch) thick when collapsed as shown in Figure 1. The sheet metal that makes up the bladder is comprised of 19 gauge or 1.11125 mm (0.04375 inch) thickness, the top and bottom pieces of sheet metal are resistance seam welded around the perimeter. There are two different ports installed on one of the bladder skin corners of the flat jacks; these ports allow a fluid to fill the unit and the other port has a relief valve. The fill port is comprised of a check valve. The pressure relief valve is located in the second port; preset to 1724 kPa (250 psi), pressure relief valve will keep the load cell from bursting. Bursting of these load cells typically causes a small tear in the metal skin allowing the fluid to leak out without a large catastrophic failure. The effective inflation range of these load cells is between 25.4 mm (1.0 inch) to 254.0 mm (10.0 inches) thick. Different types of fluids can inflate these load cells but the most common and easily accessible fluid for testing applications is water. Water pressure from the mine supply line can inflate these load cells to the desired load. Depending on the pre-stressing requirements a pneumatic powered pump, hydraulic pump or hand pump may be required to inflate the load cells.

Jan 1, 2019

By David E. Lindorff

The impact of surface coal mining on the geologic materials and ground water in different geologic settings is being investigated by the Illinois State. Geological Survey at three abandoned surface mines in Illinois. At a site near Ottawa in La Salle County, the overburden prior to mining consisted largely of pyritic shale; sand was the major component of the overburden and spoil at a mine near Coal City, Grundy County. Clays, lacustrine silts, and some shale and limestone were the dominant premining overburden materials at a mine near Harrisburg, in Saline County. Ground-water elevations at Coal City and Harrisburg are approximately at premining levels, whereas at Ottawa they are near the base of the spoil. Ground-water quality has deteriorated at all three sites, especially at Ottawa and Harrisburg.

Jan 1, 1981

By R. Benemelis

The existence of resins in some coal deposits in various parts of the world has been known for many years. These resins vary considerably in chemical structure and properties. The resin that is found in Utah coal, however, is rather unique, and has properties particularly attractive for the manufacture of printing ink mastics and adhesives. This resin is a rather dark, very high melting point, low molecular weight hydrocarbon resin. Its typical properties are shown in Table I. Its largest use by far, has been in the printing ink industry. The history of Utah coal resin is interesting, but unfortunately one of disappointment and failure.

Jan 1, 1990

By M. K. Boateng, K. Awuah-Offei

"Language barrier in a workplace affects workers’ productivity and safety. The objectives of this paper are to: (1) review the various approaches for breaking language barriers among miners; and (2) analyze the costs and benefits of these approaches, and make recommendations on the way forward. The authors achieve these objectives by reviewing the current approaches in breaking language barriers among miners. The review reveals that some of these approaches can be expensive with less benefits. Thus, it is concluded that mining companies should carefully select the optimal approach to break language barrier. INTRODUCTION Multi-national mining companies have expanded their operations into non-traditional mining destinations to grow and meet market expectations. For instance, Newmont Mining Corporation has about 14 operations and projects located in Africa, Asia, Australia and America (Newmont Mining Corporation Operations and Projects, 2015). Similarly, Freeport-McMoRan operates about 14 mines in North America, South America, Southern Asia, and Africa (Freeport-McMoRan Inc., 2015). Some mining companies have also attracted expatriate workers into their workforce. For example, Ma’aden, the Saudi Arabian mining company, in its 2013 annual report states that 34% of its total employees are expatriates (Ma'aden, 2013). Expatriates constitute a key source of skilled labor and facilitate skill transfer. The success of many international operations relies greatly on expatriate performance (Erbacher, D'Netto & Espana, 2006). Even companies that do not expand their operations into other foreign countries still have to deal with language barriers due to changing language demography of the country and the areas from which labor is sourced. For example, the language composition of the workforce and languages used in South African mines is diverse with miners proficient in Afrikaans, English, Zulu, Xhosa and others to varying degrees (Research Focus (Pty) Ltd, 2011). As a result of these trends, most mines today operate with a multinational workforce. This means cultural differences, including language barriers, exist among the miners. Marschan-Piekkari, Welch and Welch (1999) emphasize the fact that language problems become prominent as companies internationalize and grow their operations into more countries. According to a survey by Forbes, language barrier affects operations. For example, business owners acknowledge that language proficiency may promote a safer work environment (Rubin, 2011). A research has shown that language and cultural barriers in a workplace contributes to reducing workers’ productivity, increasing accidents, and hurts employers’ ability to recruit, hire and retain workers (Morris, 2002). Hence, mines are making efforts to break language barriers in their operating environments. Ma’aden, for instance reported in 2013 that 1,506 of its employees received training in English as a second language (Ma'aden, 2013)."

Jan 1, 2016

By Andrew C. Katen

The mining industry faces increasing geopolitical risk in the coming decades. Constraints such as resource nationalism, corruption and social license could grow to outweigh fundamental limitations like geology or supply and demand (Ernst & Young, 2013; Verrastro et al. 2010). Lurking beneath these more immediate and palpable concerns, however, may be more significant risks entrenched in geography and history. Deep-rooted cultural and strategic forces that emerge slowly ? or erupt suddenly and unexpectedly ? can generate momentous and far-reaching political, social and economic changes. While multinational enterprises routinely assess for political risk, the nature of minerals extraction means long-term and systemic geopolitical conditions are especially important for mining companies to identify and understand. Mine development is a decades-long process that binds companies to the land and makes changing course to avert emerging threats a difficult and costly option. Consequently, geopolitical assessment is a pertinent and valuable tool that mining companies can use to more comprehensively evaluate strategic threats and opportunities. Geopolitics is the study of society, politics and strategy through the lens of geography (Gray, 1996). Its emphasis on relatively permanent physical features of the earth makes geopolitics a uniquely valuable tool for assessing political risk. Topography, climate and natural resources have shaped, constrained and motivated peoples and governments throughout history. These influences transcend regimes, policies and borders ? and even states themselves ? which, by contrast, change often and dramatically. Framing politics against mountains, deserts and rivers supports identification of historical patterns and forecasts of emerging trends. In other words, the physical map provides an objective and consistent model for studying a subjective and dynamic subject such as politics (Sloan and Gray, 1999). Consequently, geopolitical assessment can highlight threats and opportunities that go unaddressed by other risk methodologies that emphasize current conditions (Glancy, 2012). Taken together, the permanence of geography, hindsight afforded by centuries of political history, and interconnectedness of world events makes geopolitical assessment a valuable approach for conceptualizing strategic risk.

Mar 1, 2014

By James F. Fraser

Construction of a major linear project in any environment is difficult, at best. Construction of a major linear project which includes major subway elements, both cut and cover and tunneling, in the center of an urban environment, approaches the impossible. I believe such a project would be impossible for a private company or a privately owned utility for a variety of reasons. The major two reasons are the funding necessary for such massive projects and the myriad of individual interests associated with private ownership of land. Such projects are possible in the public sector only because the need for the project... as is the case with mass transportation in Atlanta. . .overrides the profit motive. Without the profit motive, private companies, whether utilities or not, are precluded from practical interest in the development of any project. While it is safe to conclude that a profit-oriented business would have no practical interest in developing such massive projects as may include major tunnels, it would be useful, I think, to compare some of the significant differences between private profit-oriented businesses, and an agency, or Authority, such as MARTA, in building a major linear project. SLIDE 1. Comparison of a Private Company and a Public Agency [Item Private Company Public Agency Simplified To make a profit To provide a pre Purpose scribed service]

Jan 1, 1979