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By C. R. Hopkins

"The petroleum refiners of the United States made rapid strides in fuel economy in 1928, when the calculated number of B. t. u. required to refine a barrel of crude petroleum was 637,000 as compared with 698,000 in 1927, a decline of 9 per cent. The major portion of this indicated increase in fuel efficiency was undoubtedly due to the gain in use of the pipe-still and the continuous process of refining as contrasted with the old batch method of distillation.,Almost without exception the new refineries are equipped with one or more pipe-stills, and many of the older plants are changing over to this type of equipment. The refineries of the Appalachian area are among the oldest and most conservative of the country, yet a number of them dismantled their old shell and cheese-box stills and installed pipe-stills in 1928.The more extensive use of the pipe-still was not the only way in which the refiners lowered their fuel requirements in 1928. The use of heat-exchangers, in which the heat from hot vapors to be condensed is used to heat the incoming cold oil, also increased in 1928, and in addition the refiners have kept abreast of the times in saving fuel through better insulation and improved burners.For the year 1928 the refiners burned as fuel the following: 46,400,000 barrels of-fuel oil; 3.362,000 short tons of coal; 114,950,000,000 cubic feet of natural gas; 77,313, 000,000 cubic feet of refinery or still gases; and 470,000 short tons of coke, in addition to a little electricity. This fuel was calculated to have produced a grand total of 582,156 billions of B. t. u., as compared with 578,784 billions B. t. u. in 1927.The total of 46,400,000 barrels of fuel oil burned represents an increase over 1927 of about 5,000,000 barrels, which made it about equal to the 1926 figure. Practically all of the refinery districts used more oil as fuel in 1928. The most important increase - over 2,000,000 barrels - occurred in the East Coast district, where greatly expanded throughput of foreign crude was instrumental in increasing fuel-oil production.The use of coal for fuel at refineries again registered a material decline, the total for 1928 of 3,362,000 short tons being 33 per cent below that of the previous year. The outstanding decrease in the use of coal in 1928 occurred in the East Coast district, where coal was probably replaced by oil. The use of coal for fuel at refineries in the States of Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia declined materially in 1928; the substitute used in the majority of cases was oil burned in pipe-stills."

Nov 1, 1929

By J. A. Woolf, E. S. Leaver

"So much has been written on the ore genesis of the Comstock Lode that it is sufficient here to describe the original ores as consisting chiefly of quartz and some calcite. In places .a considerable amount of pyrite appears. There are also minor amounts of galena, chalcopyrite, and sphalerite. The chief silver minerals are argentite, stephanite, and polybasite. Most of the gold is native.A composite analysis of the ore; obtained by averaging the results from the early workings of several mines, is shown in Table 1.The history of the milling of Comstock ores from the Sixties to date would call for a review of the development of precious-metal metallurgy. However, a brief outline of the methods employed will give a better basis for studying the difficulties that are to be expected in the final retreatment of the remaining residues.In the earliest days amalgamation was accepted as the main recovery method. The large tonnage of good-grade ore from the Comstock Lode attracted the best metal¬lurgical talent of the time, and developed there the highest skill in the art of amalgamation, including the auxiliary chemical preparation of the ores and the mechanical operation. In this work 0.5 to 6.0 pounds of mercury was used per ton of ore. The mercury loss probably averaged about 2.5 pounds per ton of ore treated.The better grade of tailings from the ores milled were impounded, often near the works. In many cases the same tailings were reworked several times before they entered the main outflow waste stream that had its course down Seven Mile Canyon to the Carson River. Following the water course down the canyon the tailings were re-impounded, and, as metallurgy advanced, new plants were erected to again re-treat them. The most successful of these plants used forms of amalgamation, chlorination, and cyanide methods of recovery. To the tailings from the re-treatment plants, smaller tonnages of untreated tailings produced by milling lower-grade ore are continually added.Along the stream bed down the canyon a series of blanket runways were constructed, and each was independently operated for years by one or more men. All, or the heavier portion of the stream flow was run over the blankets; in this way much of the heavier concentrate, mostly sulphides and mercury products, was reclaimed.All of the residues finally entered the run-off flow along with the sewage from Virginia City and waste from the gas works, saw mills, and stables. As the accumulation along the bed of the Carson River became a nuisance, the lighter and better grade of tailings was impounded on the banks of the river. This accounts for the large dumps locally known as ""Douglas tailings."""

Jul 1, 1928

It was decided to demonstrate the use of latex as a soil sealant by irrigating three small plots at Lanse coded 03A on the west of Brown's run, 3C on the east of the stream, and SB, an area on the spoil bank. Earlier plans to sprinkle latex on twenty acres of the side were abandoned because of easement difficulties. On the basis of results from laboratory soil columns and small plot experiments at Lanse, Naugatex J-3471 was the latex of choice. The irrigation system consisted of plastic pipe (two inch size) for the main line from the water meter to the irrigation area because of lower price and ease of handling. Because the municipal water supply was limited to 20 gpm, low-volume 14V-LA-TNT Rainbow sprinklers were specified with low angle 20° 3/32 inch nozzles to reduce wind effects. At the expected nozzle pressure of 50 psig, each sprinkler covers a 56 foot diameter area at a delivery rate of 1.64 gpm. Each of the three test areas was covered with twelve sprinklers, six used with water alone as a control area and six used with latex and subsequent water spraying. One-quarterturn inlet valves were positioned on the main lines leading to each area. Flow to the treated and untreated areas was set at 10 gpm by Dole flow control valves in the' main entry lateral to each of the six sprinklers. To avoid the use of dilution tanks, a Moyno pump operated by a 1/2 HP, 1140 rpm 5:1 reducing drive was used to deliver 1/2 gpm 48% latex for mixing with 10 gpm water. A 3500 watt gasoline generator provided power for pump and light. Latex was applied at night to take advantage of the lower evaporation and higher humidity. Neutron gauge access tubes were placed in orthogonal arrangement in the areas that were irrigated, with four tubes in the section that were sprinkled with latex and four tubes in the untreated irrigation section in each of the three locations. Each tube, five and one-half feet long and sealed at one end with a plug welded in place, was inserted five feet into the ground in a cored hole. In each irrigation area, the left section of six sprinklers spread the dilute latex while the right section sprinkled the same amount of water to serve as a control plot. As shown in Figure 7 each sprinkler has a 56-foot sprinkling diameter at 50 psig design water pressure. The sprinklers are 30 feet apart on the laterals and 35 feet apart between the laterals. The access tubes (coded AT on Figure 7) were placed in comparable spots on the two sections of each area, so that four soil moisture measurements on the two sections could be compared. Bouyoucos resistance blocks (BB) were also placed in areas 03A and 3C at one, two and three foot depths, but not on the spoil bank area.

Jan 1, 1972

By Scott Turner

The settlers of a new country necessarily suffer at first from the lack of accumulated stocks of metals - in-use that are possessed in older countries . Our American colonists were at first compelled to import their metals in manufactured forms , and it must have proved difficult to produce an exportable surplus of commodities with which to pay for them . These circumstances stimulated a search for domestic ore deposits . Various discoveries resulted , so that as early as 1628 , we find the colonists importing two craftsmen from England to establish iron -works in Massachusetts to beneficiate local ores . In 1648 , an iron -works at Lynn was producing metal at an annual rate of 400 tons . Later on , the colonial iron industries became of importance , some metal being actually exported to England . The people of this country thus early became convinced of the necessity for domestic mineral production . It is now little realized how persistent were their efforts to - make mineral discoveries , before the gold- rush to California ; the extraordinary success of our subsequent mineral explorations has overshadowed the earlier record . Precise and complete accounting of our mineral production , having the character of national bookkeeping , is available only for the series of years beginning with 1880 , when commences the official record that is provided by the Government publication called Mineral Resources of the United States . In the period of 52 years , from 1880 through 1932 , the value of mineral production of the United States amounted to more than 122 billion dollars . Only 12 billions of this total were produced in the 21 years , 1880-1900 , while nearly 110 billions were produced in the first 31 years of the present century . Of this 110 billions , over 53 billions were produced in the most recent decade , 1921- 1930 , the production of the previous decade , 1911-1920 , having been only 37 billions , though it included the war period ; that of the decade 1901-1910 was 16 billions . In 1931 , the total value of mineral products of the United States was $ 3,180,000,000 , compared with an average annual value of $ 5,556,000,000 during the previous five - year period , 1926-1930 . The decline in 1931 from that average was therefore 43 per cent . As to the three great groups of mineral commodities , metals fared worst , with a decline of 55 per cent in the value of their production , while the value of fuels declined 39 per cent , as did that of the nonmetals group .

Jan 1, 1933

Objective: To enable mine operators and mine inspectors to make quick and accurate measurements of the explosible nature of coal and rock dust mixtures.

Jul 1, 2008

Ever since the problem of mine pollutant waters has been under consideration, different mining methods have been investigated to abate the pollution problem. Two such methods which have been reported are inert gas operation and revised mining methods.

Jan 1, 1970

By D. O. Kennedy

THIS CHAPTER on minor nonmetals covers greensand, meerschaum, mineral wool, and wollastonite. Mineral wool was by far the most valuable material among these minor nonmetals reported in the United States in 1956. GREENSAND Output of greensand (glauconite) declined in 1956. The Kaylorite Corp., Dunkirk, Md., and the Inversand Co., Sewell, N. J., were the only firms that reported production of this commodity. Output came from open pits in Calvert County, Md., and Gloucester County, N.J.

Jan 1, 1958

By Albert E. Schreck

THIS CHAPTER concerns such minor nonmetals as greensand, meerschaum, mineral wool, staurolite, and wollastonite. GREENSAND Output of greensand (glauconite) was slightly higher than in 1958. Open pits of The Kaylorite Corp. (Calvert County, Md.), National Soil Conservation, Inc. (Burlington County, N.J.), and Inversand Co." (Gloucester County, N.J.) accounted for the entire production. Soil conditioning used about 72 percent of the greensand sold. The remainder was used as a water-softening agent. Prices for greensand, f.o.b. mine, ranged from $13 to $70 per short ton.

Jan 1, 1960

By Brian G. White, Theodore J. Williams, Jeffrey K. Whyatt

Detailed mapping and examination of the site of a large rock burst at the Lucky Friday Mine, Mullan, ID, demonstrated conclusively that damage was caused by a splitting and buckling failure mechanism initiated by separation of rock into layers along steeply dipping metamorphic shear foliation subparallel to the affected crosscut. The thin tablular layers then buckled into the crosscut from both sides. Rigorous control of the burst by these layers suggests practical measures for avoiding bursts in crosscuts in the future by repositioning and reorienting openings so that splitting and buckling are reduced or precluded.

By George T. Faust

The Southern Experiment Station of the Bureau of Mines, United States Department of the Interior, in cooperation with the University of Alabama, is investigating the various types of clays to be found in the Southern States. In connection with this work, the petrographic laboratory is called

Jan 1, 1940

By Nicholas G. Theofilos

Ecuador's real gross domestic product (GDP) increased 6% in 1976 despite persistent shortages of electrical power and essential fuels, which caused factory slow-downs and shutdowns. Petroleum export earnings, which made up more than 50% of total export value in 19716, totaled $565 million, a 9% increase over those of 1975. A new 60,000-barrel-per-day oil refinery at Esmeraldas was scheduled to go on- stream in mid- 1 97 7, operating entirely on Ecuadorean crude. Corpración Estatal Petró1era Ecualtoriana (CEPE) started construction of a 600-kilometer network of product pipelines which was scheduled to be completed in 1977 to coincide with the completion of the refinery.

Jan 1, 1980

Underground and strip mining (6,7) produce different hydrologic environments. Many underground mines are below the zone that is completely saturated with water and the mine openings may cause new and continuous contact between sulfurous material and water which flows from the saturated zone to the workings. Strip mines are usually above the zone of continuous saturation and contact between sulfurous material and water is generally restricted to periods of precipitation. A full appreciation of the problem of water pollution caused by drainage from deep mines requires a basic understanding of occurrences and movement of water in the ground and the modes of ground water entrance into mining areas.

Jan 1, 1970

By Launa Mallett

This paper introduces a method for teaching workers to communicate necessary information when giving or receiving emergency warning messages. Research has shown that when an emergency occurs, people may not get the information they need to take appropriate action. Interviews conducted with 48 underground coal miners who had escaped mine fires revealed that the warning information provided was inadequate. In some cases, sufficient information was not provided to the endangered miners. At other times, miners failed to ask for information they needed to plan and execute effective escapes. Researchers from the NIOSH Pittsburgh Research Laboratory have been studying the content of emergency warning messages and have developed an emergency communication protocol. A training intervention that presents the protocol and related mental cues is being evaluated for effectiveness in improving the content of emergency messages. In this paper the protocol is presented and the training package described. The evaluation procedures and a summary of the analyses conducted to-date are also provided. The training package was developed for use with underground coal miners, but could easily be modified for emergency communications training in other settings.

Jan 1, 2000

To determine the effectiveness of multiple types of fire sensors for early and reliable mine fire detection. Background The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has evaluated the effectiveness of multiple types of fire sensors for early mine fire detection and nuisance signal discrimination. Reliable early fire detection in underground mine can be hindered by false fire alarms produced by carbon monoxide (CO) and smoke particulate emissions from diesel equipment, welding, and metal-burning activities. Another false fire alarm source is the cross-interference of hydrogen (H2) produced by battery-charging operations with a CO sensor's chemical cell. Workers can learn to ignore repetitious "false" alarms associated with these emissions. This jeopardizes their safety in the event of a mine fire.

Sep 1, 2002

By C. B. Manula, R. L. Sanford, R. A. Rivell

Development of the Rail-Haulage Sub-assembly for the Production Sub-system (UGMHS)* required the use of ,a newly formulated model in order to best satisfy the requirements. Many of the ideas of the former single-stage rail simulator included in the original version of UGMHS have been used, together with the results of experience gained in applying the earlier model to a variety of operating situations (Sanford, 1969). The sub-assembly is developed as an independent system and, as such, can be used to analyze track systems using production distri¬butions as data input. In addition, since this model is designed to replace the original sub-assembly in UGMHS, the linking procedure is identical with respect to bi-directional information flow. The flow of coal from production sections, for example, fills the mine cars, but a condition of "out of empties" or "full of loaded" at a loading station will shut down inby production sections. A requirements analysis was conducted to determine specifically how the model could best serve the user. Operating management had the largest input in developing the following requirements for the Rail Sub-assembly: a) data input in mixed narrative - numeric form to permit user identification of the input variables; b) a user option to extract several ranges of detail in model output, i.e., an average shift summary of minimum retrieval

Jan 1, 1974

By David J. Ellis

The mineral industry of Benin continued to be confined to the production of cement, crude oil, salt, and sand and gravel. Only crude oil and cement were exported, with the value of crude oil exports and cement exports constituting about 20% and 2% of export revenue, respectively. The value of crude oil exports was less than the cost of imports of refined petroleum products. Production of crude oil was unchanged from 1986, averaging 5,500 barrels per day (bbl/d). The Government managed the facilities at the Semé Oilfield while actively seeking a new manager to replace Pan Ocean Oil Co. of Switzerland, whose contract was canceled in 1986. Recoverable reserves of crude oil were estimated to be between 18 and 30 million barrels.

Jan 1, 1989

The optimum situation in sealing the soil with latex would be to locate the sealant at the depth where natural permeability is lowest, and to narrow distribution of the latex to a film. To ascertain how closely we were achieving these objectives it was necessary to devise a method to measure the concentration of latex in soil. A number of methods were explored and two were used in actual field tests. SBR latex tagged with c14 was prepared and used to determine the distribution of polymer in the soil. The latex was made by copolymerizing a mixture of radioactive and normal styrene with butadiene in bottles by conventional methods. Average particle size was 600 Å. Diluted aliquots had 1.40 microcuries radioactivity per gram of latex. Tagged latex was mixed with soil in a range of proportions from 0.01 to 0.25% by weight to develop a calibration curve. Analyses of soil in the laboratory and from the field were determined by comparison with this master curve. Styrene-containing polymers have a characteristic peak at 700 cm-1 but crosslinked SBR is not soluble in solvents normally used in infra-red spectroscopy, e.g., carbon disulfide. We developed a method for solubilizing the crosslinked polymer by stirring overnight at room temperature a soil sample in chloroform with t-butyl hydroperoxide and osmium tetroxide. The filtered chloroform residue was dried to constant weight, thoroughly mixed and pressed into a KBr pellet, and concentration was determined by measuring the absorption at 700 cm-1. Details are given in an Appendix.

Jan 1, 1972

By H. R. Shell

Variations between laboratories on the silica and alumina content of calcined kyanite led to this Bureau of Mines study of the extent and nature of the differences. In particular, Bureau scientists hoped the study would lead to correction of the causes of the dissimilarities. A sample of calcined Kenya kyanite was analyzed by seven different laboratories familiar with silicate analysis. The compiled data indicated differences originating from lack of recovery of silica after two acidic dehydrations, from high alumina caused by several factors, from loss or gain of iron during sample fusion, and from indifference regarding the accurate determination of minor constituents.

Jan 1, 1959

By R. V. Ramani, C. B. Manula, A. Owili-Eger

ANALYTICAL PRESSURE - VOLUME COMPUTATIONS FOR THE MINE PROTOTYPE A new coal mine is projected, with entrance by slope 1,500 feet long. Nine main entries will be standard for development, five as intake and four as return. One return shaft is planned near the slope bottom, and an intake shaft and portal are planned 5,000 feet north of the slope bottom. The slope will have an area of 150 square feet and a perimeter of 55 feet. A belt and supply track will be within the slope. The return shaft will be circular with a diameter of 18 feet and will be 500 feet deep with an escapeway. Two hundred feet of the shaft and 500 feet of the slope will be concrete lined. Select the fan to operate five units per shift and drive the 5,000 feet to a proposed new portal, using the slope for an intake. Two main splits are planned with the maximum of three units on any split. The amount of air desired at each unit is 25,000 c.f.m; a shop at the slope bottom will require 10,000 c.f.m. In the solution of this or any similar problem, the first step is to determine the resistance factors. CALCULATION OF R FACTORS Slope area = 150 sq. ft.; Perimeter = 55 feet; Length = 1,500 feet. The friction factor K must be established. Five hundred feet of the slope is smooth lined, moderately obstructed by belt; K = 35. The remaining 1000 feet is in sedimentary rock and moderately obstructed; K = 85.

Jan 1, 1975

By R. V. Ramani, R. Stefanko, G. W. Luxbacher

Mine ventilation can be broadly defined as the branch of mining engineering primarily concerned with the controlled flow of air through mine airways to maintain an acceptable atmospheric environment wherever men work or travel underground. Martinson (1976) has defined three elements of mine ventilation, 1) an engineering element concerned with establishing quality control (removal of dust and gases), quantity control (regula¬tion of air direction and magnitude) and climatic conditioning (temperature-humidity control), 2) a biological element in which an understanding of biological response is used in assessing the mine environment, and 3) a philosophical element requiring judgements as to the degree of risk or worker discomfort that is socially acceptable. Most texts on ventilation, such as Hartman (1961), limit themselves to a discussion of the engineering element. Although also limiting his text to engineering control, Weeks (1928) thoughtfully addresses the other elements in the preface of his book where he states: "Life is brief and happiness elusive under the best of conditions; so beside the commercial aspect must be placed the humanitarian. Is it not reasonable that the operator should give his men a chance to spend their working hours in a comfortable environment, with the danger of sudden death or disability reduced as much as possible?" The statutory requirements of ventilation are, in most countries, established on the basis of biological response as determined by basic research or are dictated by social awareness, often touched off by major disasters, resulting in demands on regulatory bodies for more stringent requirements. To a limited extent, the philosophical and biological elements of ventilation are intertwined in that social awareness may

Jan 1, 1977