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By William B. Plank

THERE are 19 pct fewer undergraduate and graduate mineral engineering students enrolled in the ECPD accredited schools of the United States this year than there were a year ago. The figures are: 8727 this year and 10,674 last year. The entire engineering group in both countries numbers 171,070, as compared with 184,547 last year and 252,250 in 1947-48, the peak year. This is a decrease of 7.3 pct since last year, less than half as much as the decrease in the mineral engineering group. These figures on engineering enrollment for the current year, 195.1-52, in colleges of the United States and Canada were prepared jointly by the U. S. Office of Education and the American Society for Engineering Education. The seriousness of the situation is shown. by the reported demand for 60,000 to 90,000 engineers this year for civilian and defense industries and only 35,800 will graduate next June. Many of the 1952 graduates are subject to Selective Service, having been granted deferments while in college, and ac- [ ]

Jan 1, 1952

By Arthur F. Johnson

Plant sites for the light metal industry must be located where ample low cost power is available. In the first half of the century hydroelectric development was the only source of this power-now the best sites have been exploited and those remaining do not promise enough water to permit year-round capacity power plant operation. In searching for economic plant sites engineers have concentrated on locations with vast water power potential. Olin Mathieson Chemical Corp. has been studying the economics of developing water power to make aluminum. However natural gas, lignite, and even atomic energy have also been considered as possible power sources for aluminum production. Economic studies have given consideration not merely to investment and production costs, but to total costs of delivering fabricated products to the market center of the U. S. When delivered costs are considered and when full account is taken of the newest techniques of mining bituminous coal and utilizing it to make electric power, one arrives at the inescapable conclusion that coal has emerged as the economic answer to American aluminum production.

Jan 4, 1955

THE International First-Aid and Mine-Rescue con-test, under the auspices of the U. S. Bureau of Mines, was held at Butte, Mont., on Aug. 20, 21 and 22. As usual, the first-aid elimination contests were held the first day, the finals the second, and the mine-rescue contest the third. While the number of teams entered was not as great as at some previous contests held nearer the coal-mining districts of the East, the atten-dance was much larger than usual, due to the great interest in first aid, rescue work, and accident preven-tion that has been created by the effective support and constructive policy of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. toward them. The winner of the first-aid contest was the Great Falls Zinc Mill team of the Anaconda company, of which Fred Erickson is captain. Second place went to the Baton Rouge team of the Standard Oil Co. of Louisi-ana, and third to the Great Falls Furnace Refinery team of the Anaconda company.

Jan 9, 1928

CARNEGIE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY On May 27, twenty-five of the leading representatives of the coal mining industry of Western Pennsylvania met with President A. A. Hamerschlag, of the Carnegie Institute of Technology, with a view to bringing about closer relations between the Institute and the mining interests. It was felt that the advice of the men in the field was necessary for the proper training of young men for mining work. A resolution adopted at this conference, among other things, called for a board of mine operators and engineers to serve in an advisory capacity with the Carnegie Institute of Technology. As a result of the counsel and recommendations of the Advisory Board, the Carnegie Institute of Technology, in cooperation with the U. S. Bureau of Mines, has recast its four year course in Mining Engineering and has also established a two-year course in Coal Mining. To carry out this new program, there has been organized the "Cooperative Department of Mining Engineering" in the Division of Science and Engineering of the Carnegie Institute of Technology.

Jan 8, 1919

Equilibrium in Lead Smelting. By S FREDERICK RAVITZ AND KENNETH E FISHER (Tech Pub 681, also Trans , vol 121 2300 words) Four liquids are ordinarily produced in lead smelting, namely, bullion, speiss, matte and slag To determine whether these exist together in equilibrium, the distribution of gold and silver among them was measured To crucibles containing similar mixtures of all four products, varying amounts of silver were added, and the crucibles were heated together under the same conditions for 3 hr, during which the charges melted and separated into four layers After cooling, these layers were assayed for silver, and the distribution coefficients, 1 e , the ratios of the concentration of silver in any particular layer to that in the bullion, were calculated In each experiment, each distribution coefficient was found to be constant, regardless of the amount of silver used Similar results were obtained using gold instead of silver The constancy of the distribution coefficients indicates that the bullion, speiss, matte, and slag exist together in equilibrium

Jan 1, 1937

By David E. Fogelson, James J. Olson

Rock mechanics as a guide to a safe underground operation is gaining importance as more is under- stood of rock behavior under stress and of the competency of rock after blasting. The U. S. Bureau of Mines' Twin Cities Mining Research Center and White Pine Copper Co. personnel undertook a joint research program recently to define how the rock adjacent to a newly opened underground working could be left as undisturbed as possible. The goal was to leave a competent structure which would tend to limit rock falls and thus decrease the incidence of fatalities from this greatest of all underground hazards. High-amplitude stress waves and borehole gases create a crushed zone in the rock, the thickness of which is about equal to the borehole radius. Beyond the crushed zone, additional structural damage occurs to the rock from the microstructural level up to visible fractures that may extend several feet. This type of rock damage near the final excavation lines reduces rock strength and increases the possibility of failure of the openings from subsequent vibrations or stresses.

Jan 9, 1969

My bets are on you, every time! But who is right? In the "cobalt issue" of our favorite magazine, January 1951, you stated: "By far the best immediate United States prospect for, large amounts of cobalt is the Blackbird mine of the Calera Mining Co., which is operating for Howe Sound Co., in Leinhi County, Idaho." In the March 1 issue of Saturday Evening Post, Ernest F. Mechlin, Jr., chief cobalt section, National Production Authority, states: "The Bethlehem Steel Co.'s Cornwall, Pa. ore bed is the principal domestic source." Maybe he should have said: "was the principal domestic source", or perhaps Howe Sound's Idaho cobalt is still in the prospect stage in Mr. Mechlin's opinion, perhaps in yours too. KATHARINE W. CARMAN GEOLOGIST 933 MICHIGAN AVE. EVANSTON, ILLINOIS Mr. Mechlin is correct in his statement that Cornwall is the principal domestic source of cobalt, but within the year, Blackbird production should greatly exceed that from Cornwall. Calera is expected to ultimately produce 3 million lb per year, whereas Cornwall averages 520,000 lb per year. -Editor.

Jan 1, 1952

By Freeman Bishop

Copper production has been under Government scrutiny for many years because it's known as a concentrated industry which in turn creates what many economists label administrative prices. Neither of these conditions is illegitimate, per se, the Federal Trade Commission and the Justice Department have said time and again. But Justice spoke up once more. This time over a Puerto Rican copper development planned by American Metal Climax, Inc., and the Kennecott Copper Corp. Bureaucratic Dichotomy Creates Confusion and Conflict In the Copper Industry Ian MacGregor, chairman and chief executive officer of Amax, said Justice in a recent communique questioned the propriety of the proposal of a joint copper venture in Puerto Rico. At the same approximate time, Dr. Hendrik S. Houthakker, chairman of the President's Commission on Copper, was urging copper producers to expand production to help hold down prices by making more copper available to all consumers. This, Mr. MacGregor said, is creating confusion and conflict, since the Administration from one source is chastising the industry for doing what another branch requests.

Jan 1, 1970

By S. F. Turcotte, B. J. Grierson

At the Q. I. T. ilmenite smelter, nine electric furnaces produce titania slag and iron At high power levels, a furnace requires either a slag or an iron tap approximately once an hour, using rail cars as slag receptacles and ladles for iron. The correct scheduling of taps is an important operational tool due to peak power load and operational considerations. Over recent years, large increases in furnace capacity have imposed severe strains on the product handling facilities. This situation results in loss of production when several taps are bunched, because of an in- ability to handle many taps simultaneously. An on-line computer program has been developed to generate schedules for tapping a single furnace. By improved scheduling, this program can en- large the tonnage of each tap and minimize the number of taps, while reducing traffic congestion and unit cost s. Future plans call for extension of this technique to all nine furnaces with addition of a master scheduling program to optimize the overall traffic flow in the smelter aisle.

Jan 1, 1969

By John P. Cosgro

The increasing use of internal furnace-boilers for power-plants at mines (doubtless due to the facility with which they may be installed by reason of their portability; the fact that they require no masonry setting, cast-iron fronts, buck-stays, etc., and practically no foundation; and the successful maintenance of their claim to equal and even superior economy, as compared with boilers of other types1) warrants this description of a method of remedying an injury which may occur, to such a furnace, even though it satisfies the requirements of the formula adopted by the U. S. Board of Supervising Inspectors of Steam Vessels.2 I refer to the sagging and deformation which may result from overloading the boilers for a considerable period—say, several days. This is sometimes unavoidable under the exacting conditions of continuous day-and-night service, and (in spite of all rules and precautions) the occasional careless or unskillful work of attendants. Such a trouble is by no means unknown on shipboard, where this type of boiler is so largely employed.

Jan 1, 1906

By Nicklaus Heil, L. D. Clark

As political tensions in African and Asian mineral producing regions increase, the orientation of Latin America's economic development assumes importance not only in the U.S. hemispheric policy but also in our mineral-based economy. Latin America as a mineral supply source has been confronted with regional, political and economic problems which may, at best, have limited further investment and, at worst, have suggested possible repudiation of existing investments. Historically, the mining industry has provided a basis for the national economies of Bolivia, Chile and Peru, and recently the governments of these countries have sought to force increased development of the industry through new and somewhat revolutionary mineral legislation. The extent to which the mineral industries are intended to finance economic development is uncertain and the influence of this legislation on economic freedom and incentive for foreign and domestic investment is a matter for some thought. Two facts are outstanding: first, mining, at present, provides approximately 80% of the foreign exchange in Chile and Bolivia and 42% of that in Peru and, second, existing tax revenues are insufficient to finance a developing economy.

Jan 5, 1967

By J. C. Irvine

Meramec Mining Co., a joint venture of Bethlehem Steel Corp. and St. Joe Minerals Corp., mines and pelletizes iron ore at the Pea Ridge mine. The Pea Ridge property is located near Sullivan, Miss., about 113 km (70 miles) southwest of St. Louis. The ore body was delineated in the mid-1950's by St. Joe during a lead exploration program. The first test holes drilled on the Pea Ridge magnetic anomaly revealed the presence of a large magnetite deposit; further drilling in 1956 and 1957 confirmed that the ore body was mineable. Meramec Mining Co. was incorporated in 1957 and shaft sinking began late in the year. Production began in April 1964. The ore body is overlain by about 400 m (1300 ft) of flat-bedded sediments. It is tabular, about 800 m (2600 ft) long and up to 180 m (1600 ft) thick. It dips about 80° and is of unknown depth. The ore is mainly high-grade magnetite with small zones of specular hematite. The wall rock is a Precambrian rhyolite porphyry.

Jan 9, 1976

By David L. Rife

Fluid inclusions have been studied since the mid-1800s. In 1858, the famous English geologist H. C. Sorby, stated that ". . . there is no necessary connection between the size of an object and the value of a fact, and that, though the objects [inclusions] ... are minute, the conclusions to be derived from the facts are great."' This statement philosophically emphasizes why fluid inclusions should be studied. Fluid inclusions supply the economic geologist with "hard" data on the chemical environment and mechanisms of transport for ore fluids. Such studies enable geologists to understand more about their complex nature. The information that can be obtained from fluid inclusions is as follows: 1) Fluid inclusion "filling temperatures" measured with the microscope heating stage, reflect the hotness of an ore fluid at the time of its entrapment and are one of the most accurate methods of geologic thermometry. 2) Ore fluid densities indicate the extent to which ground water becomes mixed with ore fluids. Density is determined from the composition of inclusions, the ratios of gas to liquid (at room temperature), and from

Jan 1, 1973

By Paul D. V. Manning

MAGNESIUM is an exceedingly strategic material but the importance of its production at the time this war started was not realized. Our Government then suddenly became much alive to the need of a tremendous increase in magnesium output, and became a participator in the industry. In this paper an attempt will be made to given an over-all picture of the industry as it has been, and is being, developed. The present war is giving a great acceleration to the use of lighter metals. Development of facilities for production of great tonnages of aluminum and magnesium is bound to bring about some interesting changes in later peace times because costs will be low and production capacities high. As our knowledge of the metallurgy of magnesium alloys increases, this metal will become of vital peacetime importance and will be used in ways we do not now imagine. Household refrigerators, furniture, automobiles, even houses will all be lightened through the use of magnesium.

Jan 1, 1943

By P. W. George

THE rapid increase in cost of discovering new orebodies by churn drilling in the Tri-State district has led to some attempts to lessen the expense by using geophysical methods. Electrical prospecting was tried three or four years ago, but no successful results were recorded. In 1926, the Federal Mining and Smelting Co. engaged the North American Exploration Co., of Houston, Texas, to make some tests with the torsion, balance. At first, it was thought that the most favorable conditions for discovery of ore deposits with the torsion balance would be in locations where the ore was known to occur at rather shallow depths, FIG. 1.-CROSS-SECTION OF DUENWEG LEASE. therefore the first trial was made at Duenweg, east of Joplin, where some zinc ore had been developed at a depth of 130 ft. The gravity gradients at 61 stations on a tract of about seventeen acres indicated plainly one large zone of maximum gravity and a smaller narrow zone of minimum gravity. Fourteen churn-drill holes, half of which struck .ore, show that all the ore found was located outside the zones of maximum and minimum gravity. In the zone of maximum, gravity the limestone beds were closest to the surface, and the first chert beds encountered were at the greatest depth. The results (shown in Table 1) indicated that the gravity of the limestone was greater than the gravity of the fractured chert together with its orebodies, and probably also greater than the bouldery soil and clay on top of the limestone. A cross-section of the Duenweg lease is shown in Fig. 1.

Jan 1, 1928

Discussion of the paper of COURTENAY DEKALB, presented at the New York meeting, February, 1915, and printed in Bulletin No. 98, February, 1915, pp. 331 to 337. HORACE V. WINCHELL, Minneapolis, Minn.-Mr. Dehalb summarizes the reasons which he believes are important for the revision of the mining laws, as follows: "1. The conceptions as to the characteristics of orebodies that were held at the time the statute of 1872 was enacted have since proved to be in many respects erroneous." We all appreciate the force of that suggestion. The idea of the old prospector who made rules and regulations in the early days, which were attempted to he incorporated, so far as possible, in the Mining Act of 1872, was that all of the veins in a certain district outcropped upon the surface, or approximately parallel to each other upon the surface, and maintained that parallelism beneath the surface. Therefore, it seemed perfectly proper and natural for each man to stake his claim upon an outcropping, and have the right to follow that vein in working downward, with the general expectation that his workings would always remain just as far away from those of his neighbor as the outcroppings upon the surface. This does not happen to be the case. Dr. Raymond has very ingeniously referred to the subject in one case, in words which read as follows: "If all mining properties presented this beautiful simplicity of structure (ideal location of ideal vein), and all mining locators exhibited a corresponding simplicity of purpose, the application of the law would be easy, but the naiveté of the statute fares badly between the freaks of nature and the tricks of man."

Jan 5, 1915

By F. D. Mahone

Much crude oil, as produced from the well, carries varying amounts of water, which may be present as free water in globules sufficiently large to settle out, in time, if the fluid is allowed to stand, or as an emulsion formed by myriads of minute water particles, each surrounded and entrapped by a film of oil through which it cannot break under the action of gravity alone. Such an emulsified mixture of oil and water is commonly termed "cut oil." When such an emulsion is subjected, under proper conditions, to the influence of a high-potential alternating-current field, the minute water particles rupture the enveloping oil films and coalesce into larger water droplets this procedure continuing until all the water is freed into drops of such size that they readily settle out. This action has been photographed by the micro-moving-picture camera; under the microscope, the breaking-up of the emulsion, as described, is seen to be accomplished in a few seconds. The low power requirements of the process, from records of commercial plants, substantiate the theory that the action is that of a multitude of electrical condensers in series, rather than that of a number of conducting paths. The minute water particles serve as the metallic elements, or plates, of the condensers and the separating oil acts as the dielectric. Such surface charges as the particles may have are removed, and the intervening oil is broken, probably electrically by the voltage and mechanically by the attractive force between adjacent oppositely electrified particles. The principle of breaking up an emulsion under the influence of an alternating electric field was discovered by F. G. Cottrell and Buckner Speed, through experiments conducted, at the University of California, which resulted in a plant being installed on the property of the Lucile Oil Co. in the Coalinga field, California, early in 1909. This plant was able to reduce 14-per cent. emulsion to less than Pper cent. with commercial success. Standard Cottrell Apparatus The present standard Cottrell apparatus consists essentially of the electric treater and a settling or trap tank. The treater is a galvanized-iron tank approximately 3 ft. in diameter and 10 ft. high, which con-

Jan 1, 1924

By R. S. Knappen, D. V. Carter

In the states east of the Mississippi River, oil field operations were generally restricted during 1927. Active drilling was chiefly confined to the flood district of Bradford, and to the new areas in western Kentucky, Michigan, and southwestern Indiana. In spite of the general depression, production increased in every state, except Illinois. This unexpected increase is. due to several factors. First, in 1926 there was little flush production outside of Illinois, and the decline 'curves in all states are exceedingly flat. Second, the floods in Bradford, Pennsylvania, and Allegany County, New York, proceeded normally and increased production in those states for the fourth consecutive year. Third, new pools in Kentucky, Indiana and Michigan gave important flush production. Fourth, the general unsatisfactory market forced the operators to scrutinize carefully all their operations and improve efficiency and production in all possible ways. Increases amounted to approximately 2,000,000 bbl. Illinois lost, 900,000 bbl., leaving a net gain for the states east of the Mississippi River amounting to 1,100,000 bbl., or a total 40,268,000 barrels. Pennsylvania and New York In northern Pennsylvania and southern New York, the principal activity centered in the districts where flooding is being used to increase the recovery from the old districts. Once started, the flood cannot be shut off. The producer must drill wells and take his oil on schedule, or irrevocably lose it. Accordingly, in face of an adverse market Bradford and Bolivar operations increased 24 per cent. This area furnished more than 40 per cent. of the oil wells completed east of the Mississippi River last year, although the average initial production was less than 2.5 bbl. Unlike all normal fields, this production increases for several months until water appears in the well. For this reason, these wells will produce much more oil than would appear probable from the statement of initial production. During the year, air or gas pressure was applied to several new properties. Surplus gas is rarely available and air has been more commonly used. Two explosions occurred as a result of recycling air-gas

Jan 1, 1928

By AIME AIME

TRAINED as a mining engineer and with no little experience in the field of mining, his interests and activities later transferred to the alloying, fabrication, and physical metallurgy of nonferrous metals, principally silver, Robert H. Leach represents in his professional life both of the major phases of the fraternity of mining and metallurgical engineers. In his personal characteristics, his wide circle of true friendships, his kindly, sympathetic interest in the problems of his fellow engineers, be they the junior men of the mineral industries or the mature and experienced men, he typifies the characteristics and attitude so desirable in the professional man.

Jan 1, 1939

By Effingham Humphrey

THE Lehigh Valley. Coal Co. finished the rebuilding of its Drifton No. 2 breaker at Drifton, Pa., in the summer of 1917. The new construction comprises an addition and the complete remodeling of the old breaker. It is of interest to note that the old structure was the first iron breaker erected in the anthracite region. THE OLD BREAKER This old breaker was built by the Cross Creek Coal Co., under the direction of the late Eckley B. Cole, in 1888-89, and was fully described by him in the Transactions.1 The columns were cast iron, 8,'10 and 12 in. square. The floors and partitions in pockets were cast-iron ribbed plates. The struts were cast iron of "H" section; the other members were of structural iron either rolled I-beams or built-up sections. The sizes of the rolled beams varied from 6 to 20 in. deep, while the built-up sections, made of plates and angles, varied from 6 to 63 in. in depth, so that there apparently was no rule to determine the type of section used. In the remodeling of the old structure, practically everything was taken clown excepting the columns and roof, and such beams as were necessary for temporary construction purposes, and, therefore, a close inspection of the old structural members could be made and the effect of the acid water oil them could be noted. The cast-iron members were but slightly attacked by the water, while the wrought-iron beams, in the wet places, were corroded almost to failure.

Jan 2, 1918