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By Oliver Bowles

A conviction is growing that depressions and other adverse conditions are not entirely unavoidable if a knowledge of past achievements and shortcomings is intelligently, applied in shaping the course of industry. Mineral producers have available a source of such knowledge concerning; their industry in the statistical records of the United States Bureau of Mines, and by scanning, this increasingly exact history can obtain information on which to found a more stable future. This paper contains a brief history, covering more than 50 years, of the activities of the nonmetallic mineral industries as a group, followed by short histories of each of the more important commodities in which are noted the circumstances that lave influenced their development.

Jan 1, 1933

By Paul Meadows

The Buckrange reservoir, Stephens field, Ark., is approaching the economic limit of production under present operating conditions. Over 100 million barrels of oil remaining in the reservoir will not be recovered by primary producing methods. The Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with the Arkansas Oil and Gas Com-mission, made the petroleum-engineering study presented in this report to aid operators in evaluating secondary-recovery possibilities in the reservoir and in planning secondary-recovery programs if their initiation is decided. The Stephens field, in Columbia, Nevada, and Ouachita Counties, Ark., is about 12 miles northeast of Magnolia, Ark., and 15 miles west of the Smackover field. Surface elevations in the area average about 240 feet above sea level.

Jan 1, 1956

By R. W. Fatzinger

The accident-frequency rate for placer mining in 1942 is reported as 36.923 accidents per million man-hours worked. This figure places placer-mining accident frequency slightly higher than that given for quarrying-35.7-but considerably under the 78.0 for coal mining and 56.5 for metal mining.4 Placer mining is subdivided into four types of activity: Underground, surface, dredging, and hydraulicking. It is the purpose of this paper to present and discuss safety practices in dredging and hydraulic mining; therefore, the following considerations will be limited to these two types of placer mining.

Jan 1, 1948

By Donald F. MacDonald

This report aims to discuss, from the viewpoint of the mining geologist, the bearing of topographic and geologic conditions on cer- tain problems that arose in the construction of the Panama Canal. T+ is published by the Bureau of Mines as a contribution to engineer- ing liters ure because it presents information that shows how geology and topography must be considered by the mining engineer in plan- ning excavations and in removing loose material and solid rock in the safest and most efficient manner. The printing of this bulletin has been approved by the governor of the Panama Canal, as it was impracticable for the Panama Canal to give this information to the general public in any of its publications. The "sword cut" of Goethals and his men did not sever the Isth- mian barrier; it merely clove the hills to a depth of 40 feet above sea level. This cut and the great areas of low valleys at both ends of it have been covered with fresh water to the 85-foot level. This high-level lake held by dams at either end, the 85-foot locks, by which ships enter it, and the dredged approaches from the two oceans constitute the Panama Canal. In the preparation of accurate estimates concerning the cost of large excavations information regarding the geologic conditions, as obtained by a study of natural features, is necessary. Drill holes and test pits will furnish supplementary geologic information, but without a gen- eral knowledge of the geologic conditions it will not be possible for the constructing engineer to answer such questions as the following: (1) What rock units will be encountered in the excavation and in what proportion? (2) What will be the cost of drilling each for blasting (3) How far apart and how deep must the drill holes be to efficiently break the rock of each to the proper size-not too fine nor yet too coarse? In this connection jointing, fissuring, bedding, toughness, and other physical characteristics must be considered (4) How steep will the slopes of the excavation stand, and to what extent will they wash and trench on exposure to the atmosphere? (5) What proportion of the material to be excavated is of such physical character that it may be utilized in any other part of the project, such as in concrete construction, road making, wharves, breakwaters, riprap work, etc.

Jan 1, 1915

By E. K. Stanek

This volume describes software developed for programmable calculators that is useful in the analysis and design of mine electrical power systems. The programs are equally useful for any industrial or commercial power system. All programs are written for both the HP-97 and the TI-59 programmable calculators. Listings of both versions of the twelve programs that were developed appear in the report. The programs that were developed can be broken into two groups. The first group encompasses design-oriented programs. The second group encompasses analysis programs. For each program the following items are provided: a description of the program's capabilities, the solution technique used, instructions on how to use the program, a worked out example with data and results and, finally, listings of the programs for the HP-97 and TI-59 programmable calculators. Typical problems that can be attacked with these programs include ground bed design, selection of contactor size, fuse size, relay settings, instantaneous overcurrent trip settings for trailing cables, allowable cyclic cable loading, short circuit analyses, prediction of transient voltages and others.

Jan 1, 1979

By Robert W. Freedman

The Bureau of Mines investigated methods of analysis of free silica in respirable dust, including both work done at the Bureau of Mines and work done elsewhere. The review covers both coal dust and noncoal dust, taking into account both existing and proposed chemical and spectroscopic procedures.

Jan 1, 1971

By C. A. Komar

The Bureau of Mines conducted experiments on one synthetic and three natural sandstone samples to investigate the effects of acoustic energy on the flow of brine in porous media. Ultrasonic energy at a frequency of 20 kc per second and an intensity of 55 watts per cm2 was irradiated in the direction of the fluid flow and in the opposite direction for distances of 1/2 and 2 inches between the vibrating device and the sample face and under conditions of suppressed and nonsuppressed cavitation. Forty tests were conducted: 32 with a pressure differential of 0.64 psi across the samples, 2 with 5 psi, and 6 with 15 psi. Acoustic waves altered the rate of flow of the brine through the samples, but this effect was observed only at low differential pressures and from a practical point of view was insignificant. As a result of irradiation, however, the samples exhibited reduced permeability. This reduction was probably caused by the shifting of solid particles dislodged by the acoustic waves.

Jan 1, 1967

By L. M. Demers, D. C. Kuhn

"Kuhn, Douglas C., and Laurence M. Demers. Effect of surfactant on basal and silica-induced eicosanoid production by the alveolar macrophage. Am. J . Physiol. 269 (Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 13): L165-Ll 70, 1995.-Infiammation and fibrosis subsequent to the inhalation of certain mineral dust particles has been suggested to result from the activation of eicosanoid synthesis by the alveolar macrophage (AM). To determine if surfactant modifies dust-induced generation of eicosanoids by the AM, we evaluated the effect of the surfactant lipid dipalmitoyl lecithin (DPL) on the production of eicosanoids by rat AM exposed to respirable silica dust in vitro. During the first 24-h exposure period, DPL alone significantly increased basal production of eicosanoids but completely inhibited silica-induced thromboxane A2 synthesis. In contrast, leukotriene B4 (LTB4 ) production was only partially reduced by DPL. During a second 24-h exposure period, LTB4 production in response to the highest dose of silica remained significantly elevated in the presence of DPL. Similar results were obtained when the surfactant preparation Survanta was evaluated. These results suggest that 1 ) DPL and Survanta independently activate AM eicosanoid production, 2) DPL and Survanta modulate the response of the AM to silica dust, and 3) L TB4 may be the most important eicosanoid mediator of the long-term effects of silica dust exposure on lung pathophysiology. THE OXYGENATED METABOLITES of arachidonic acid (AA) (here collectively termed eicosanoids) have been implicated as important regulators of lung physiology and are thought to be involved in pathophysiological sequelae such as acute respiratory distress syndrome, asthma, and the pulmonary complications of sepsis (20). This role is manifested through both direct effects on lung physiology as well as through an indirect modulatory effect on the release of other mediators of lung injury, in particular profibrotic cytokines such as the interleukins and tumor necrosis factor (15). Recently, exaggerated eicosanoid production by both the alveolar macrophage (AM) and the type II epithelial cell has been demonstrated to result from the exposure of these cells to several particulates, including crystalline silica (quartz) dust (5, 9, 17). These observations have led to the suggestion that eicosanoids play a major role in the etiology of pneumoconioses.Another secretory component of the pulmonary environment, surfactant, has been shown to modulate crucial AM functions, such as bactericidal activity and the recruitment of circulating immune cells (25). Indeed, an important feature of the lung's reaction to inhaled mineral dust is an increase in surfactant production, perhaps as a compensatory or protective response (1, 16). In addition, the alteration of the surface properties of mineral dust by surfactant or its components has been shown to influence the biochemical response of the AM to the dust, perhaps by altering the surface charge of the dust particle (11, 29, 32). And recently, Wallace et al. (28) have shown that the coating of mineral dust with surfactant, and its subsequent removal by lysosomal phospholipase, unmasks differences in dust cytotoxicity that are not apparent when AM are exposed to uncoated dust. Thus it appears that the inclusion of surfactant in in vitro exposure studies may be important in evaluating both the absolute levels of eicosanoid production by the normal and dust-exposed AM and the temporal relationship between dust exposure and the production of inflammatory mediators by the AM. Therefore, we characterized the effects of the surfactants dipalmitoyl lecithin (DPL; the primary lipid component of natural surfactant) and Survanta (a commercially available surfactant derived from bovine lung) on basal and silica-induced AM eicosanoid production during two 24-h periods after exposure to dust particles to both allow the enzymatic removal of surfactant from the particle surface and evaluate the k"

Dec 1, 1996

By Benjamin W. Haynes

The Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), has updated a 1977 NOAA report prepared by Dames & Moore entitled, "Description of Manganese Nodule Processing Activities for Environmental Studies." This updated report contains detailed flowsheets and descriptions of the five potential first-generation nodule recovery schemes now considered most likely to be used by industry; they are high-temperature gas reduction and ammoniacal leach, Cuprion ammoniacal leach, high-temperature and high-pressure H2S04 leach, reduction and HCI leach, and smelting and H2S04 leach. The first three processes are three-metal recovery schemes (Cu, Ni, and Co) with the option of Mn recovery from the tailings. The remaining two processes are four-metal (Cu, Ni, Co, and Mn) recovery schemes. All except the HCI process are assumed to use a nodule feed rate of 3 million tons per year (dry basis). Final metal products are Co powder and cathode Cu and Ni. A minor amount of Ni is also recovered as powder, and some Cu and Zn are recovered as mixed sulfides. Manganese in the four-metal processes is recovered as either manganese metal or ferromanganese.

Jan 1, 1983

By M. L. Whisman

The Bureau of Mines developed and tested in the laboratory several innovative techniques for reclaiming used lubricating oil. These processes included percolation through both chemically treated clay and ion-exchange resins, distillation through batch and continuous wiped-wall vacuum apparatus, treatment with solvent extraction systems, and chemical removal of impurities with chelating agents. In each treatment, the criteria of evaluation was oil recovery and reduction of acidic and metallic components. Both vacuum distillation and solvent treatment ranked high in their abilities to remove acidic and metallic components of the used oil with good oil recoveries. A combination of the two techniques gave the best overall results in terms of quality evaluations made by established bench tests. The methods were not ranked according to economic practicablity.

Jan 1, 1974

By W. W. Adams

[S,1.1.8'"' of explordves -permissible explosivos,21 other high explosives, and black blasting povrder -in the Uni ted States during the caJ.endar yenr 1937 reached a ~ombined total that slightly exceeded the quantity sold in 1936. A larger output was re orted. for permisAiblA and other hig! explosives but asmal-ler for black po~~er. Production of the three classes of explosives totaled 404, 744,294 pounds, more than 3 pel'CGnt over 1336. The total qrumti ty produced included 49,579,441 pounds of perminsibles, 2~8,924,253 pounds of other high ex-plosives, 36,403,950 pounds of black powder in pellet form, and 29,836,65q pounds of bla~k powder in granular form.]

Jan 1, 1938

By D. N. Tallman

The Bureau of Mines has completed 4 yr of deep-bed filtration research comparing the efficiencies of granular magnesium oxide (MgO) and conventional filter sand in single- and dual-medium filters when filtering mineral-processing and mine waters. Bench and field evaluation tests were conducted using water types ranging from synthetic suspensions of asbestos, kaolin, metal hydroxides, and milled sand to process waters from magnetite beneficiation, iron ore flotation, granite cutting, and a steel mill. Even though the turbidity reductions were similiar, MgO filters were found to be advantageous when filtering water pretreated with alum because the volume throughput before breakthrough (turbidity > 1 NTU unit) was much more for the MgO filter than for the sand filter. Reduced head loss owing to the greater porosity of the MgO filter beds is potentially the most beneficial advantage in employing MgO as the filter medium, especially when filtering water pretreated with polymer flocculants. Granular MgO (periclase) is durable and can be backwashed Like sand. It is compatible with anthracite in a dual-medium filter and apparently is not poisoned by dissolved metals in the process water. No single solid-removal mechanism could be identified for the improved filtration observed with granular MgO.

Jan 1, 1987

By C. A. Herbert

The old fatalistic idea that industrial accidents were a necessary part of industry and that little, if anything, could be done about them has been succeeded by realization that a majority of the hazards causing these accidents were man-made and that if they could be recognized most of them could be eliminated and the accidents prevented. Recognition of these facts has brought about substantial reduction of accidents in many coal dines, as well as in other industries. Knowledge of the hazards and their elimination has been obtained largely through a study of individual accidents and the causes which led up to them. With this thought in mind tae available data on coal-mine explosions in Illinois were studied.

Jan 1, 1934

Two different techniques were used to make measurements of the absolute value of electromagnetic noise in an operating coal mine, Robena No.4, located near Waynesburg, Pennsylvania. One technique measures noise over the entire electromagnetic spectrum of interest for brief time periods. With present instrumentation, the spectrum can be covered from 40 Hz to 400 kHz. It is recorded using broad-band analog magnetic tape, and the noise data are later transformed to give spectral plots. The other technique records noise envelopes at several discrete frequencies for a sufficient amount of tine to provide amplitude probability distributions. The specific measured results are given in a number of spectral plots and amplitude probability distribution plots. The general results are that at frequencies below 10 kHz, power line noise within the mine is severe. Impulsive noise is severe near arcing trolleys, and at lower frequencies near any transmission line. Carrier trolley phone signals and harmonics are strong throughout the mine whenever the trolley phone is in operation. Additional information beyond that included in this report may be obtained from the authors, who are with the Electromagnetics Division of the National Bureau of Standards.

Jan 1, 1974

By Jack G. Croeni

A study was made by the Bureau of Mines to determine the influence of high energy-rate deformation on the structures and properties of low-carbon steel, stainless steel, titanium, titanium-6 percent aluminum-4 percent vanadium, beryllium, molybdenum, and tungsten. The purpose of this study was to determine relative formability, the effect of energy and temperature on metalworking parameters and resulting structures, and the properties of materials formed by this technique. Forming techniques were limited to upset forging and direct extrusion on pneumatic-mechanical forming machines. Results show that considerable grain refinement can be achieved by careful control of deformation and forming temperature by high energy-rate techniques. Significant improvements in strength were observed as a result of this refined structure. Approximate deformation resistance as a function of temperature was determined for a variety of materials.

Jan 1, 1966

Past issues of Minerals and Materials have discussed such aspects of the economy as consumption and investment expenditures, interest rates, productivity, and international trade barriers and their effect on the minerals industry here and abroad. In this issue, we will (l) look at recent indications of a possible economic recovery, (2) present 1983 expectations reflecting the results of industry surveys conducted by the U.S. Department of Commerce (DOC), and (3) briefly discuss the contribution of the U.S. mining industry to total gross national product (GNP). THE RECOVERY Throughout most of 1982, DOC's Composite Index of Leading Indicators provided evidence of impending improvement in the economy. The index increased moderately during eight of the months in 1982 and then jumped an estimated 3.6 percent in January 1983 (table 1). While the leading indicators continued to predict improvement, the general economy, as measured by the Index of Industrial Production, continued its slide through November 1982 (table 2). Finally total industrial production increased in December 1982 and continued on an upward path in January and February, as predicted by the leading indicators.

Jan 1, 1983

By Andrew Brown

"In recent years operators of brown-ore mines have shown increasing interest in .the reclamation of ore heretofore lost in tailing ponds. In January and February.1945 the author made a preliminary survey of the ponds in the Russellville district, Franklin County, Ala. The Russellville district (fig. 1) was chosen for the preliminary work because it contains many large ponds in a comparatively restricted area. All important properties in the district were visited with Charles R. Wilson of Russellville, who has been familiar with the Franklin County brown-ore industry since 1890; with Edmund Craddock and W. S. Blackburn, managers of the two washers now operated near Russellville by Shook & Fletcher Supply Co., and with S. A. Britton, manager of the Sloss-Sheffield Steel & Iron Co. washer. The larger ponds were measured roughly and tonnages estimated. and samples taken from different areas were analyzed and beneficiated at the Southern Experiment Station of the Bureau of Mines; Tuscaloosa, Ala.The ponds explored were the Sloss No.1 (Ensley); the Sloss No. 8, and the Sloss No. 4-5, which are among the largest in the district and so located, within an area of .three square miles (see fig. 2), that ore from all of them could be-treated,one centrally located washer.Actual work was begun on May 9. Between that date and June 30, when field work was completed, 246 holes in ponds were drilled and sampled, and 15 additional holes were put down primarily to test the drill .in different types of ground with a view to its possible utilization in other types of prospecting. Samples from all holes were analyzed for iron content; samples from 13 holes were sized and analyses made for each size fraction, and six large samples have been composited for beneficiation tests.Brown iron ore has been mined in the Russellville district since 1815, when the first blast furnace in Alabama was built in NW1/4 sec. 10, T. 7 S., R. 12 W., about 3 miles southwest of Russellville (19).-J The furnace was abandoned before the Civil War, and mining continued on a small scale until 1888, when Enoch Ensley began to mine the ridge between Russellville and Pain Creek. His first washer, Ensley No. 1, was about 300 feet south of the junction of the present Tharptown road with the Waco spur of the Southern Railway."

Aug 1, 1946

By Dennis S. Kostick

Salt is a universal mineral commodity used by virtually every person in the world. Although a very common mineral today, at one time, it was considered as precious as gold in certain cultures. This study traces the material flow of salt from its origin through the postconsumer phase of usage. The final disposition of salt in the estimated 14,000 different uses, grouped into several macrocategories, is traced from the dispersive loss of salt into the environment to the ultimate disposal of salt-base products into the waste stream after consumption. The base year for this study is 1990, in which an estimated 196 million short tons of municipal solid waste was discarded by the U.S. population. Approximately three-fourths of domestic salt consumed is released to the environment and unrecovered while about one-fourth is discharged to landfills and incinerators as products derived from salt. Cumulative historical domestic production, trade, and consumption data have been compiled to illustrate the long-term trends within the U.S. salt industry and the cumulative contribution that highway deicing salt has had on the environment.

Jan 1, 1993

By Jack L. Woodward

The evolution of surface mining equipment has resulted in larger, faster haulage units, loaders, etc., resulting in increased demands on steering technology. Careful analysis of these systems was warranted to determine if steering-related safety problems have been introduced. The objectives of this program were to: 1. Define the generic types of steering systems being used on mobile mining equipment used in surface mining operations. 2. Gather information on steering-related accidents in mining operations. 3. Assess the need for initiating government-sponsored research into steering system technology. A comprehensive literature survey was conducted concurrent with extensive contacts with mining operations, mining equipment manufacturers, steering system component manufacturers, and government agencies. A Technical Evaluation Group composed of representatives from the above organizations was formed to review the data gathered. It was concluded that the steering systems in use on surface mining equipment are reliable and do not present a safety problem. The Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. is active in pre-paring voluntary consensus standards to assure that the minimum levels of performance are defined for industry.

Jan 1, 1979

By Richard W. Lusignea

This report describes a program to evaluate the feasibility of determining roof features which occur in United States coal mines from changes in bolting machine drilling parameters. The ultimate purpose of this effort is the development of an instrumented roof bolting machine which can detect hazardous roof conditions and/or indicate when the existing roof control plan is inadequate. A survey of hazardous conditions occurring in United States coal mines is included, along with the slang expressions for these conditions, and their relative degree of hazard. Specific machine parameters are identified for detecting the specific roof conditions. Measurement concepts are proposed using readily available instrumentation in most cases. Various systems are evaluated and tradeoffs presented. An implementation plan is proposed for developing a prototype system and using it in an operating coal mine.

Jan 1, 1978