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By R. M. Brick, M. A. Williamson

Certain features of the response of copper and brass to deformation and recrystallization remain obscure. The textures obtained on rolled sheet are listed by Schmid and Boas1 as: No adequate explanation has been advanced for the presence of the secondary deformation texture of copper and its absence in brass or for the origin of the cubic recrystallization texture of copper.2 A recent publication3 attempted to rationalize the above empirically described annealing texture of brass on the basis of retention of the (110) [112] rolling orientation plus twinning about the central octahedral poles of the usual secondary (110) [115] orientation. The difierence in the textures of annealed copper as compared to 70-30 brass is also shown by the difference in the position of ears for drawn copper, at o° and go", as compared with drawn brasses, at 45o, for all compositions between oo-10 and 70-30.4 Data on indi- vidual crystals are as yet too few to permit of an analysis of these textures comparable to that of mild steel as made by Barrett and Levenson.5 Experimental Methods The materials studied included copper specimens cut from the central, equiaxed crystal portion of a tough-pitch wirebar; brass made from this copper and high-purity (99.99 per cent) zinc including alloys of 7 per cent, 15 per cent, 24 per cent, 29 per cent and 36 per cent Zn and large single crystals of 70-30 bras. Sections 1/4 in. thick of the cast polycrystalline copper and brasses were reduced 40 per cent by rolling, recrystallized to a common grain size of 0.045 mm. and then rolled directly to foil 0.002 in. thick. Hardness readings employing both the Vickers and Rockwell machines were taken at intervals during the reduction. For comparison, similar specimens were cross-rolled—i.e., turned through 90° for each pass—and comparable hardness data were secured. Finally sections from the single crystals of brass were cut to obtain the following initial orientations; these sections were rolled, hardness data secured and a complete micrographic record of structural changes obtained.

Jan 1, 1941

By R. M. Brick, M. A. Williamson

Certain features of the response of copper and brass to deformation and recrystallization remain obscure. The textures obtained on rolled sheet are listed by Schmid and Boas1 as: No adequate explanation has been advanced for the presence of the secondary deformation texture of copper and its absence in brass or for the origin of the cubic recrystallization texture of copper.2 A recent publication3 attempted to rationalize the above empirically described annealing texture of brass on the basis of retention of the (110) [112] rolling orientation plus twinning about the central octahedral poles of the usual secondary (110) [115] orientation. The difierence in the textures of annealed copper as compared to 70-30 brass is also shown by the difference in the position of ears for drawn copper, at o° and go", as compared with drawn brasses, at 45o, for all compositions between oo-10 and 70-30.4 Data on indi- vidual crystals are as yet too few to permit of an analysis of these textures comparable to that of mild steel as made by Barrett and Levenson.5 Experimental Methods The materials studied included copper specimens cut from the central, equiaxed crystal portion of a tough-pitch wirebar; brass made from this copper and high-purity (99.99 per cent) zinc including alloys of 7 per cent, 15 per cent, 24 per cent, 29 per cent and 36 per cent Zn and large single crystals of 70-30 bras. Sections 1/4 in. thick of the cast polycrystalline copper and brasses were reduced 40 per cent by rolling, recrystallized to a common grain size of 0.045 mm. and then rolled directly to foil 0.002 in. thick. Hardness readings employing both the Vickers and Rockwell machines were taken at intervals during the reduction. For comparison, similar specimens were cross-rolled—i.e., turned through 90° for each pass—and comparable hardness data were secured. Finally sections from the single crystals of brass were cut to obtain the following initial orientations; these sections were rolled, hardness data secured and a complete micrographic record of structural changes obtained.

Jan 1, 1941

By John T. Crawford

Much has been written of late regarding the flotation of coal as a means of reclaiming the valuable portion of the fines encountered in nearly all methods of coal preparation. Whether the process be wet or dry, whether the dust be sent through the entire process or removed prior to the cleaning by some such method as screening or aspiration, one of the final products consists of a considerable proportion of — 48-mesh material. The percentage of this —48-mesh material depends upon the mining method, transportation, storage, and method of preparation. The tonnage of this dust material ranges from 1 to 10 per cent of the total output of the cleaning plants. Four methods of disposal are available for this coal: 1. Disposal with the refuse from the plant. 2. Addition, after being reclaimed from the wash water, or dust collectors, without cleaning to the larger sizes. 3. Separate disposal as a pulverized fuel. 4. Cleaning so that addition to the larger sizes benefits the product as a whole. It is also true that flotation in one form or another is the only known way to effectively clean this material. While some processes do a reasonable cleaning job down to and including +l00 mesh, by far the greater majority stop at or short of the + 48-mesh size. Much of the literature on coal flotation passes by the fred pulp density and size by merely stating that the feed varies from 20 to 30 per cent solids and that the size range is from — 1/4 in. or — 1/8 in. to 0. Small wonder then that some operators with entirely different conditions, and not knowing the machine capacity, throw up their hands in despair when flotation is mentioned. Too much parallel is drawn between flotation methods as applied to ores and as applied to coal, to the detriment of the latter. In the flotation of metalliferous ores the feed pulp density ranges from 20 to 30 per cent solids, depending upon the amount of mineral to be floated and upon the size analysis. Thus where 2 to 5 per cent of the

Jan 1, 1936

By John T. Crawford

Much has been written of late regarding the flotation of coal as a means of reclaiming the valuable portion of the fines encountered in nearly all methods of coal preparation. Whether the process be wet or dry, whether the dust be sent through the entire process or removed prior to the cleaning by some such method as screening or aspiration, one of the final products consists of a considerable proportion of — 48-mesh material. The percentage of this —48-mesh material depends upon the mining method, transportation, storage, and method of preparation. The tonnage of this dust material ranges from 1 to 10 per cent of the total output of the cleaning plants. Four methods of disposal are available for this coal: 1. Disposal with the refuse from the plant. 2. Addition, after being reclaimed from the wash water, or dust collectors, without cleaning to the larger sizes. 3. Separate disposal as a pulverized fuel. 4. Cleaning so that addition to the larger sizes benefits the product as a whole. It is also true that flotation in one form or another is the only known way to effectively clean this material. While some processes do a reasonable cleaning job down to and including +l00 mesh, by far the greater majority stop at or short of the + 48-mesh size. Much of the literature on coal flotation passes by the fred pulp density and size by merely stating that the feed varies from 20 to 30 per cent solids and that the size range is from — 1/4 in. or — 1/8 in. to 0. Small wonder then that some operators with entirely different conditions, and not knowing the machine capacity, throw up their hands in despair when flotation is mentioned. Too much parallel is drawn between flotation methods as applied to ores and as applied to coal, to the detriment of the latter. In the flotation of metalliferous ores the feed pulp density ranges from 20 to 30 per cent solids, depending upon the amount of mineral to be floated and upon the size analysis. Thus where 2 to 5 per cent of the

Jan 1, 1936

By Wm. Hamilton Merritt

IN this paper, which I have the honor to submit to the Institute, it is my intention to treat especially of that part of the North Staffordshire field which converges to a long tongue in the neighborhood of Congleton, and which includes the villages of New Chapel, Ford Green, Norton, Biddulph, Bradley Green, Gillow Heath, and the immediate vicinity. My object is not so much to give a minute description of the geology or systems of mining and smelting, as by a general review, some idea of the extraordinary facilities for the production of excellent iron, which have enabled this district to maintain its position more successfully than any of its rivals against the late depression in trade. The North Staffordshire coal field has the Cheshire and Lancashire fields some thirty-five miles to the north, those of Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire forty miles to the east, those of South Staffordshire and Shropshire, about thirty miles to the south, and the Denbighshire and Flintshire fields some forty miles to the west. It is highly probable that the coal continues under the new red sandstone to the Western and Southern fields as the dips on both sides, and absence of large faults, make it impossible to come to any other conclusion. In a section of this coal field, from Chatterly to Whitfield, thirty-two workable seams of coal are shown, of an aggregate thickness of 130 feet, varying from 2 feet 6 inches to 7 feet, and thirteen seams of ironstone, 24 feet, averaging from 2 to 4 feet. All of these seams have been minutely described in a paper by Mr. Charles J. Homer, read in 1875 before the British Iron and Steel Institute. In the northern part, to which I especially wish to direct your attention, the beds lie in a V-shaped basin, the underlying millstone grit and Yoredale rocks rising and forming escarpments on either side of the valley containing the coal. Throughout this district, at the outcrop of the coal, there are indications of old workings. A shaft 4 to 5 feet in diameter reaches the coal at about 14 yards from the surface, and from it the coal has

Jan 1, 1880

By William Hamilton Merritt

In this paper, which I have the honor to submit to the Institute, it is my intention to treat especially of that part of the North Staffordshire field which converges to a long tongue in the neighborhood of Congleton, and which includes the villages of New Chapel, Ford Green, Norton, Biddulph, Bradley Green, Gillow Heath, and the immediate vicinity. My object-is not so much to give a minute description of the geology or systems of mining and smelting, as by a general review, some idea of the extraordinary facilities for the production of excellent iron, which have enabled this district to maintain its position more successfully than any of its rivals against the late depression in trade. The North Staffordshire coal field has the Cheshire and Laucashire fields some thirty-five miles to the north, those of Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire forty miles to the east, those of South Staffordshire and Shropshire, about thirty miles to the south, and the Denbighshire and Flintshire fields some forty miles to the west. It is highly probable that the coal continues under the new red sandstone to the Western and Southern fields as the dips on both sides, and absence of large faults, make it impossible to come to any other conclusion. In a section of this coal field, from Chatterly to Whitfield, thirtytwo workable seams of coal are shown, of an aggregate thickness of 130 feet, varying from 2 feet 6 inches to 7 feet, and thirteen seams of ironstone, 24 feet, averaging from 2 to 4 feet. All of these seams have been minutely described in a paper by Mr. Charles J. Homer, read in 1875 before the British Iron and Steel Institute. In the northern part, to which I especially wish to direct your attention, the beds lie in a V-shaped basin, the underlying millstone grit and Yoredale rocks rising and forming escarpments on either side of the valley containing the coal. Throughout this district, at the outcrop of the coal, there are indications of old workings. A shaft 4 to 5 feet in diameter reaches the coal at about 14 yards from the surface, and from it the coal has

Jan 1, 1880

By L. E. Porter, H. P. Hassel

The state of California produced 310,-996,696 bbl. of oil and about 415,832,000 M cu. ft. of gas in 1944. Such oil production represented 18.5 per cent of the nation's production, as compared with 19 per cent in 1943 ,The tremendous demand placed upon the California fields is indicated by the monthly production in 1944, as follows: Month Barrels per Day Jan................... 809,262 Feb.................. 820,712 Mar.................. 824,592 .4pr ................. 829,973 May.................. 832,068 June.................. 846,038 July.................. 849,231 Aug.................. 858,932 Sept.................. 885,823 Oct................... 877,667 Nov.................. 876,613 Dec.................. 883,847 In all, 2100 wells in proved areas and 269 wildcats were drilled in California during the year 1944. At the end of the year, approximately 270 wells were drilling in the state, as compared with 156 wells at the same time in the preceding year. Nine new fields or new zone discoveries were made during the year, which, according to best estimates, will contribute some 77,000,000 bbl. of new reserves; in addition, the extensions of old fields will increase the new reserves about 165,000,000 bbl., or a combined total, through dis- coveries of new fields, zones, and extensions, of 242,000,000 bbl., offsetting to the extent of about 78 per cent the total oil produced during the year. Geographically, the reserves from these new field and zone discoveries and extensions are distributed as follows: Per Cent San Joaquin Valley........ 72 Coast Area............... 24 Los Angeles Basin Fields. . . 4 100 The state's reserves of crude oil at the end of the year have been estimated to be distributed as follows: The outstanding development project for the year was that of the United States Navy in the Naval Petroleum Reserve No. I, Elk Hills field. During the year, 115 wells were completed in this field, and at the close of the year an average of 19 strings of tools were drilling. This program is being jointly conducted by the Standard Oil Co. of California with the Navy and is designed to increase the production of Naval Petroleum Reserves from approxi-

Jan 1, 1945

By Berke L. Thompson

INTRODUCTION Purpose of Wall System There were 2379.88 m (meters) of tied back wall along Interstate 77 in the Capitol Complex area in Charleston, West Virginia. The main purposes of this wall system was for aesthetics, reduction of excavation, saving the forested slopes, and control of sloughage of the back slopes onto the Interstate. Failure At 1 PM on Thanksgiving Day, 1982, 3 wall panels fell from the insitu position onto the interstate in a matter of seconds. See Fig. 1. The total length of wall that fell was 29.25m. The height of the three panels varied from 10.06m to 10.36~1 and each individual panel had a length along the highway of 9.75m. These were abutting panels that were approximately in the middle of a section of wall 165.81m long. The panels separated from the remainder of the wall at 2 expansion joints that occur at the ends of every 3rd panel. The reinforced portland cement concrete panels were designed on a 76.2mm (millimeter) batter. See Fig. 2 for Wall Dimensions. The footer for these panels was lm wide, was keyed into sandstone bedrock 0.30m and was approximately 1.52m below the portland cement concrete pavement and shoulder. Thirteen of the 17 panels in this section of wall were tied to the sandstone bedrock behind the wall by either 25.4mm or 34.93mm hollow rock bolts. Two panels on each end of the wall were cantilever type walls. The panels that failed had 25.4m hollow rock bolts. A portion of each panel adjacent to both sides of the failure was pulled out from the rock face and appeared to be in imminent danger of also failing. All of the 21 rock bolts in the panels that fell were separated either at the backface of the wall, in the extension from the wall to the rock face or at the rock face. None of the rock bolts had been pulled out of the bond length in the sandstone bedrock. After considering the condition of the wall and

Jan 1, 1984

Discussion of the paper of DOUGLAS BUNTING, presented at the New York meeting, February, 1915, and printed in Bulletin No. 97, January, 1915, pp. 1 to 21. ARTHUR HOVEY STORRS, Scranton, Pa.-I know something about accidents Nos. 4 and 8. At the Fuller mine there was no disturbance of the surface in connection with either of those accidents, there was no surface settling, nor signs of sand in the mine, and seemingly the water all came from a subterranean basin or water-bearing stratum overlying the Six Foot vein. A similar thing was shown, in an accident not referred to in Mr. Bunting's table, at the Avondale, where we had an inflow of water, as high as 12,000 gal. a minute, for a considerable period. Regarding the second accident (No. 8) at the Fuller mine: after the first inflow of water (No. 4 of the table), the mining was abandoned in the Six Foot vein. A long slope was. driven in an underlying seam, and when this had reached a point about 2,000 ft. southeast of the place where the first inflow of water occurred, and where the bore holes show there was apparently sufficient rock covering for the Six Foot vein, a rock plane was driven up to the upper vein (Six Foot) and one afternoon this exposed the coal. During the following night the inflow of the water occurred. There were absolutely no workings at this point so that no disturbance of the overlying rocks could have occurred. The result of the inflow of water was to fill up the entire lower-vein workings in about two or three clays and caused the abandonment of the mine. After several years, considerable time and money were spent in an effort to hoist the water from the shaft and mine workings, with varying, but in the main rather indifferent, success until, clue to the breaking of one hoisting rope, the engineer pulled the other hoisting tank up through the tower and down on to the engine, making a complete wreck of the whole plant. It was then decided to allow the mine to soak and it is still doing so, other portions of the property being mined from adjoining collieries.

Jan 5, 1915

By Arthur McKee

As HEAT is the controlling factor in all smelting operations, it will be .most helpful to make a new set of calculations on the basis of a .unit of fuel burned at the tuyeres to carbon monoxide. This ties together the only two factors in this operation that seem to be constant with respect to each other-the fuel at the tuyere and the air or its oxygen content. If our usual smelting operations, using natural air heated to reasonably obtainable temperatures, furnish sufficient heat above this critical temperature for the purpose, it is doubtful whether additions of oxygen will be of marked benefit. A unit of fuel will not produce a single heat unit more if burned with pure oxygen than if burned with natural air and less heat will be available per unit of fuel by the amount of heat that is carried in by the preheated nitrogen in the natural air of the blast. This is more readily apparent if considered in connection with a heat balance sheet per unit of fuel at the tuyere. The heat available in the stack, as shown by the committee's report, is less by reason of the lower fuel consumption per unit of output assumed in this calculation. The balance sheet for enriched air shows a shortage of the amount of heat usually carried in with the blast; also a lack in the hearth of sufficient heat to melt the 18 per cent. additional metal and slag and in the shaft to the extent of the shaft heat required to heat the 18 per cent. additional stock to the melting point. These heat deficiencies are provided for by the largely increased conversion of carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide, which is assumed, as shown by the following figures: Calculation for natural air: Carbon dioxide 18.4 per cent. (after having eliminated the carbon dioxide from limestone) and 20.8 per cent. of carbon monoxide. Calculation for oxygen-enriched air: Carbon dioxide 28.4 per -cent. and carbon monoxide 23.2 per cent. (no carbon dioxide from stone as lime is charged instead).

Jan 11, 1924

By William R. Webster

The unusual interest taken in the papers on steel at the New York (1922) meeting showed that the time is ripe for the renewal of the general discussion of the physics of steel, on the same lines that wete used formerly and produced such good and lasting results. The curves shown in Figs. 1 to 4 and the appendix were added to my paper1 after the February meeting, but, unfortunately, Figs. 1 and 3 were transposed; the curves on page 252 are for bessemer steel and belong on page 254; while those on page 254 are for open-hearth steel and belong on page 252. These errors are evident at once on referring to the data in Tables 1 and 2, pages 227 and 228. The curves for each 0.05 per cent. of carbon and manganese in basic open-hearth steel are given in Figs. 1 and 2; these lines for the lower carbons and manganese are comparatively uniform. Figs. 3 and 4 give similar lines for carbon and manganese in bessemer steel. The large break in the carbon lines from 0.55 per cent. to 0.60 per cent. is caused by much higher silicon in the steels of 0.60 per cent, carbon and over that are used for springs, etc. The estimated ultimate strength of pure iron, and the increase in strength by carbon, phosphorus, and manganese, with the different views regarding the same, were given and diseussed. All of this can be considered as an introduction to the practical use that is now being made of such data in selecting the heats of steel best suited to give the required physical tests called for in the finished rolled material. The chemical composition of the steel, of course, tells only a part of the story, as many other factors that have an influence on the physical properties of the steel must be considered, and controlled as far as is possible. Some of these have already been referred to, but there are other important ones to be considered and discussed.

Jan 1, 1923

By William R. Webster

The unusual interest taken in the papers on steel at the New York (1922) meeting showed that the time is ripe for the renewal of the general discussion of the physics of steel, on the same lines that wete used formerly and produced such good and lasting results. The curves shown in Figs. 1 to 4 and the appendix were added to my paper1 after the February meeting, but, unfortunately, Figs. 1 and 3 were transposed; the curves on page 252 are for bessemer steel and belong on page 254; while those on page 254 are for open-hearth steel and belong on page 252. These errors are evident at once on referring to the data in Tables 1 and 2, pages 227 and 228. The curves for each 0.05 per cent. of carbon and manganese in basic open-hearth steel are given in Figs. 1 and 2; these lines for the lower carbons and manganese are comparatively uniform. Figs. 3 and 4 give similar lines for carbon and manganese in bessemer steel. The large break in the carbon lines from 0.55 per cent. to 0.60 per cent. is caused by much higher silicon in the steels of 0.60 per cent, carbon and over that are used for springs, etc. The estimated ultimate strength of pure iron, and the increase in strength by carbon, phosphorus, and manganese, with the different views regarding the same, were given and diseussed. All of this can be considered as an introduction to the practical use that is now being made of such data in selecting the heats of steel best suited to give the required physical tests called for in the finished rolled material. The chemical composition of the steel, of course, tells only a part of the story, as many other factors that have an influence on the physical properties of the steel must be considered, and controlled as far as is possible. Some of these have already been referred to, but there are other important ones to be considered and discussed.

Jan 1, 1923

By L. O. Howard

The practice of using acid-lined converters at the plant of the Old Dominion, Copper Mining & Smelting Co. was discontinued early in January, 1913, and replaced by basic-lined converters. The new equipment consists of one electrically operated 12-ft. upright converter stand and two basic-lined shells for same. These shells are provided with twenty-four 1 1/4-in. tuyeres. The mouths are 5 ft. in diameter. Owing to the fact that there is no bedding system or other large storage capacity between the mine and the smelter, the furnaces must handle as fast as produced ore and concentrates, which may vary considerably from day to day, both in tonnage and copper content. Consequently the converter is often crowded to its utmost capacity by the frequent fluctuations in the daily matte supply. From the foregoing, it will be seen that in no way can the 'converter be favored by running light charges or by transferring to it from other stands in operation. Neither can it regularly be allowed to cool between blows, and only occasionally can it be run at as low a temperature as might be wished. No copper precipitate or other foreign material high in copper is available to help out the tonnage. Repairs and alterations or the removal of defective tuyeres must wait until such time as a slight falling off in.the matte supply allows the converting operations to ease up. These variable conditions all combine to interfere with the systematic operating of the converter. The first 12-ft. shell was blown in on Jan. 6, 1913, and ran until June 27, 1913, when it was removed to patch the brick. A record of operations covering this period follows: Shell No. 1. First Campaign, Jan. 6,to June 27, 1913 Commenced blowing............................Jan. 6, 1913. Taken off stand for patching.....................June 27, 1913. Total blowing time..........................2,689 hr. 40 min. Total number of, blows made.............................. 664 Average time of blow............................ 4 hr. 3 min. Tons matte charged.................................. 18,157 Average copper content of matte................ 43.9 per cent. Average time blowing one ton. copper................ 22.5 min. Total copper made............................... 7,250 tons

Jan 1, 1915

By Alexander Anderson

TABLES showing the drift and inclination of wells surveyed in the years 1924 to 28' and in the year 1929' have already been published. Each of these tables included a little over 1,000,000 ft. of rotary hole. In the year 1930 the table -shown-in . Fig. 1, comprising, the results of surveys .of 1,030,344 ft. of hole and representing 11,642 individual survey readings, was compiled. For that purpose we selected 'I only wells that had been drilled in California during that year. The footage of Fig. 1 differs from the two earlier tables in that the wells were all drilled in the year 1930. In the earlier tables, the footage shown was surveyed in the years designated, but some of the wells were drilled in earlier years.

Jan 1, 1931

SEC, 1, This Institute is incorporated under the Membership Corporations law of the State of New York; its corporate name is American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, Inc,; and its objects are such as are stated in its Certificate of Incorporation. ARTICLE II MEMBERS SEC. 1. The membership of the Institute shall comprise four classes, namely: 1. Members; 2. Honorary Members; 3, Associates; 4, Junior Associates. All members shall be equally- entitled to the privileges of membership, excepting that Honorary Members, Junior Associates, and Members and Associates whose residences shall be outside of the United States, Mexico, and Canada shall not be entitled to vote. Members and Associates residing within the United States of America, Mexico, and Canada, and not in arrears for dues, shall be entitled to vote in person at the meetings of the Institute, or, as hereinafter provided for, by letter ballot, SEC. 2, Members shall comprise all those persons who on the third Monday of February, 1918, were members of the Institute, and in-addition thereto, all those thereafter elected or transferred into the class of Members. A person to be eligible for election or transfer into the class of Members must be at least 27 years of age and must have had at least six years', employment in the practice of engineering, mining, geology, metallurgy or chemistry, during at least three years of which he must have held positions of responsibility in one or more of these fields. Graduation from the scientific course of a college, approved by the Committee on Membership,' shall be considered equivalent to two years' employment, as required in the previous sentence, Employment as -a teacher of engineering, mining, geology, metallurgy or chemistry, if in direct charge, may be considered a position of responsibility as specified in the second paragraph. Persons employed in research or any scientific literary work or in teaching in the scientific departments of colleges, approved by the Committee on Membership, who at the same time are engaged in consulting or in the active practice of mining, geology, or metallurgy, shall be entitled to consider the time so spent in active practice as equivalent to an equal length of time of employment in positions of responsibility, provided the work done or the positions held seem to the Committee on Membership to warrant the equivalency. The requirement of three years' employment in positions of responsibility may be waived by the Committee on Membership in the case of persons who have done notable original work in mining, geology, or metallurgy, or have won distinction by research or investigations, in one or more of these subjects.

Jan 1, 1928

By Rush Greenslade

The oil and gas lease is the basic contract of the oil and gas industry; it is the foundation stone upon which the producing industry, particularly, is based. As the industry is precarious and highly speculative, the foundation contract should be of the utmost integrity and certainty. But right there an anomaly exists; the oil and gas lease is the most obscure, most uncertain, doubtful contract in the realm of law today. That is a condition that must be considered when taking oil and gas leases, and when buying, selling, and holding them. It may fairly be asked why should this industry rest upon so insecure a foundation. Why should not the oil industry rest upon the contract that is the basis of all industry, the warranty deed? There are many contributing reasons, but the principal one is business expediency. The Anglo-Saxon idea of ownership of land is that every land owner owns from the center of the earth to the sky—all that is above and all that is below—consequently the oil and gas are owned by the person who owns the surface. That idea is not exactly true with reference to oil and gas, for many states have adopted the doctrine that oil and gas are like wild animals; they are fugacious and migratory and belong to the man that traps them. But, except for that doctrine, we believe that oil and gas are owned by the owner of the surface, wherein we differ from the Latin-American countries where the mineral rights are owned by the government. The United States was settled largely by homesteading. The owners of land were, in the main, farmers, who did not have the means or the faith to drill for oil or gas. The operators or speculators did not want to buy the land on the mere possibility of finding oil; hence a compromise resulted by which the land owner gave the speculator or the operator what he called an oil and gas lease, or a right to go upon his land and drill for oil and gas. What is supposed to be the first oil lease placed on record reads as follows: Agreed this 4th day of July, a.d. 1853, with J. D. Angier of Cherrytree township in the county of Venango Pennsylvania that he shall repair up and keep in order the old oil springs on land in said Cherrytree township, or dig and make new springs, and the expense to be deducted out of the proceeds of the oil, and the balance, if any, to be

Jan 1, 1924

SEC. 1. This Institute is incorporated under the Membership Corporations law of the State of New York; its corporate name is American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, Inc.; and its objects are such as are stated in its Certificate of Incorporation. ARTICLE II SEC. 1. The membership of the Institute shall comprise four classes, namely: 1. Members; 2. Honorary Members; 3. Associates; 4. Junior Associates. All members shall be equally entitled to the privileges of membership, excepting that Honorary Members, Junior Associates, and Members and Associates whose residences shall be outside of the United States, Mexico, and Canada shall not be entitled to vote. Members and Associates residing within the United States of America, Mexico, and Canada, and not in arrears for dues, shall be entitled to vote in person at the meetings of the Institute, or, as hereinafter provided for, by letter ballot. SEC. 2. Members shall comprise all those persons who on the third Mon- day of February, 1918, were members of the Institute, and in addition thereto, all those thereafter elected or transferred into the class of Members. A person to be eligible for election or transfer into the class of Members must be at least 27 years of age and must have had at least six years' employment in the practice of engineering, mining, geology, metallurgy or chemistry, during at least three years of which he must have held positions of responsibility in one or more of these fields. Graduation from the scientific course of a college, approved by the Committee on Membership, shall be considered equivalent to two years' employment, as required in the previous sentence. Employment as a teacher of engineering, mining, geology, metallurgy or chemistry, if in direct charge, may be considered a position of responsibility as specified in the second paragraph. Persons employed in research or any scientific literary work or in teaching in the scientific departments of colleges, approved by the Committee on Membership, who at the same time are engaged in consulting or in the active practice of mining, geology, or metallurgy, shall be entitled to consider the time so spent in active practice as equivalent to an equal length of time of employment in positions of responsibility, provided the work done or the positions held seem to the Committee on Membership to warrant the equivalency. The requirement of three years' employment in positions of responsibility may be waived by the Committee on Membership in the case of persons who have done notable original work in mining, or metallurgy, or have won distinction by research or investigations In one or more of these subjects.

Jan 1, 1928

By Edward Saibel

THE various theories that have been advanced to explain or predict the conditions under which a metal fractures may be divided into two categories: First, there are the macroscopic theories generally used in engineering practice. These are empirical in nature and limited in application. For example, the maximum normal stress criterion, which is quite satisfactory for a mild steel in simple tension at atmospheric pressure, no longer suffices when this steel is pulled under hydrostatic pressure.2 In all of these empirical theories, the critical condition characteristic of the material and of the loading conditions must be obtained experimentally. Secondly, there are the theories based on interatomic forces,3,4 or on the energy required to form new surface.5,6 These have all dealt with the theoretical evaluation of the tensile stress necessary to bring about rupture in a purely brittle manner; that is, without plastic flow preceding fracture. All of these attempts have led to values of the tensile strength of crystals or of polycrystalline bodies that are 100 to 1000 times higher than observed values. On this account, it has been thought necessary by some investigators to conceive of a microcrack structure or distribution of flaws throughout the specimen such that the resulting stress concentrations provide the factor necessary to bring about agreement between calculation and experiment. It has been pointed out by several observers7 that this point of view is highly unrealistic, in that the weakening effect of these flaws or microstructures must be very uniform from specimen to specimen, since the fracture stresses found for various specimens of the same material tested under similar conditions are so - nearly constant. Furthermore, since calculations based on atomic forces or atomic energy are for purely brittle fracture, a condition probably never satisfied in tests, agreement is hardly to be expected. Thermodynamic Theory Of Fürth In order to resolve this apparent discrepancy between the theoretical cohesive strengths and the observed fracture strengths, Fürth8 advanced a thermo- dynamic theory of the tensile strength of isotropic bodies based on work of Born9 relating to the melting of crystals. Assuming an isotropic material free from imperfections and flaws, behaving elastically up to the breaking point, and assuming a connection between rupture and the melt- ing phenomenon, Fürth obtains an expression for the rupture stress u, in the form [ ] where Q is the melting energy per unit mass, ? is the density, and µ is Poissons’ ratio. Fürth compares fracture stresses computed from Eq I with the fracture stresses of metals as given in the Landolt-Bernstein Tables (1927) and in the Hand-

Jan 1, 1947

By AIME AIME

FEW mining engineers-noted as the profession is for migratory predilections.--can point to as varied a record as Scott Turner, director of the U. S. Bureau of Mines and newly elected vice-president of the Institute. His record as printed shows that from the time of his graduation from the Michigan College of Mines in 1904 until he went to the Bureau in 1925, he worked for 21 different companies. Geographically the record is no less imposing, although one reason for this is the fact that he was field engineer for several exploration companies. Virtually every important mining state in the Union is represented in addition to Canada, Alaska, Panama, and several countries each in South America and Europe. In addition to all of the common metals he has mined tin and coal. He opened and operated for five years a group of coal mines in 73" 13' S. Lat., on the Island of Spitzbergen. This was 825 miles north of the Arctic Circle on No Man's Land, where Mr. Turner claimed and maintained pos- session under the American flag of an area of 600 square miles. Incidentally, he was a survivor of the ill-fated Lusitania, sunk by a submarine in May, 1915.

Jan 1, 1930

By Rush Greenslade

THE oil and gas lease is the basic contract of the oil and gas industry; it is the foundation stone upon which the producing industry, particularly, is based. As the industry is precarious and highly speculative, the foundation contract should be of the utmost integrity and certainty. But right there an anomaly exists; the oil and gas lease is the most obscure, most uncertain, doubtful contract in the realm of law today. That is a condition that must be considered when taking oil and gas leases, and when buying, selling, and holding them. It may fairly be asked why should this industry rest upon so insecure a foundation. Why should not the oil industry rest upon the contract that is the basis of all industry, the warranty deed? There are many contributing reasons, but the principal one is business expediency. The Anglo-Saxon idea of ownership of land is that every land owner owns from the center of the earth to the sky all that is above and all that is below-consequently the oil and gas are owned by the person who owns the surface. That idea is not exactly true with reference to oil and gas, for many states have adopted the doctrine that oil and gas are like wild animals; they are fugacious and migratory and belong to the man that traps them. But, except for that doctrine, we believe that oil and gas are owned by the owner of the surface, wherein we differ from the Latin-American countries where the mineral rights are owned by the government. The United States was settled largely by homesteading. The owners of land were, in the main, farmers, who did not have the means or the faith to drill for oil or gas. The operators or speculators did not want to buy the land on the mere possibility of finding oil; hence a compromise resulted by which the land owner gave the speculator or the operator what he called an oil and gas lease, or a right to go upon his land and drill for oil and gas. What is supposed to be the first oil lease placed on record reads as follows: Agreed this 4th day of July, A.D. 1853, with J. D. Angier of Cherrytree township in the county of Venango Pennsylvania that he shall repair up and keep in order the old oil springs on land in said Cherrytree township, or dig and make new springs, and the expense to be deducted out of the proceeds of the oil, and the balance, if any, to be

Jan 8, 1924