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By John Mullen

Impingers TWO types of midget impinger apparatus are used at Climax. The Mine Safety Appliances Company's midget impinger (MSA) and the Climax Molybdenum Company's midget impinger (CMC) (Fig. I). The Leiman Brother's No. 25, positive displacement pump is used in the CMC impinger instead of the four-cylinder radial pump that is used in the MSA impinger. With the MSA apparatus it is possible to obtain the proper vacuum by adjusting the needle valve on the vacuum chamber, while with the CMC impinger the proper vacuum is obtained by varying the rate at which the pump is cranked. The Leiman Brother's No. 25 pump is built to displace 0.1 cu. ft. of air per min. when operated at 145 r.p.m. In the CMC impinger this pump is so geared that the required crank speed is approximately 59 r.p.m. Both types of impinger apparatus are equipped with a water gauge mounted on top of the case and they are calibrated and operated in reference to the gauge. The MSA impinger flasks and nozzles are used with both types. Calibrating Impingers A calibrated precision Sargent wet-test meter (Fig. 2) is used in calibrating the impinger apparatus. The apparatus is set up as for taking a sample in the field, except that the hose from the outlet side of the meter is attached to the impinger nozzle. One revolution of the large hand of the meter indicates 0.1 cu. ft. of air displaced. The impinger pump is cranked for one minute, therefore, at a rate that will cause the large hand of the meter to make one revolution. The gauge reading is noted, then the impinger is cranked at this rate for 10 min. and is checked for error. If the meter indicates that more or less than I cu. ft. of air has been displaced, the impinger must be cranked—ither slower or faster according to the error—for another 10 min. and again checked for error. This operation is repeated until the proper gauge reading for a sampling rate of 0.1 cu. ft. per min. has been determined. This gauge reading is used in all sampling operations until the impinger is again calibrated. An impinger is calibrated at least twice each week. MlCROPROJECTOR A Bausch and Lomb model B micro-projector is used (Fig. 3). It consists of a substantial metal base supporting the light source and a microscope. Illumination is provided by a Bausch and Lomb 4.5-amp. arc lamp with mechanical feed. A glass water cell filled with a heat-absorbing and color-filter solution is placed between the arc lamp and the microscope. Two types of solution have been found satisfactory— a 2 per cent solution of copper sulphate or a 2 per cent solution of picric acid and distilled water. This percentage may be varied to give the desired color to the light reflected upon the screen. Any standard microscope may be used. A Bausch and Lomb microscope with

Jan 1, 1946

By David B. Reger

New discoveries of gas in the southern counties featured the petroleum industry in West Virginia during 194;. Drilling for oil increased slightly over 1944 and a small increase of initial production resulted. Out of 28 wildcats drilled, there were 16 gas discoveries and 12 dry holes. No commercial oil was found in the 28 wells.

Jan 1, 1946

DEFENSE Materials Procurement Agency has been moving rapidly to encourage copper industry expansion programs. Although copper production is at a high level, a shortage exists on a world-wide basis as well as on the domestic scene. Projected expansion programs will not ease this current demand for most of them are 2 to 5 years off. Refining facilities are adequate but there is a shortage of ore and scrap, and it is for this reason that the expansion programs are directed at developing more sources of supply. The domestic expansion programmed thus far and understood to have been arranged with price escalation should the domestic price go to 271/20, were summarized by American Metal Markets as follows (dates of announcement are given in parenthesis: .1-Copper Cities Mining Co.'s, $15,000,000 expansion near Miami, Ariz., to be operating about 1954. DMPA will buy 22,500 tons of copper a year up to a given amount on an agreed price of 23¢ per pound, with some exceptions and depending upon salability at a higher price to other purchasers in the U. S. (September 25th). 2-An RFC loan of $60,000 to North Butte Mining Co. to be paid off on the basis of deliveries at a purchase price of 241/20 per pound (September 25th). 3-A $25,000,000 expansion program by Phelps Dodge to provide 38,000 tons per year by late 1954. DMPA would purchase it at a price of 22¢ per pound up to 112,500 tons providing other purchasers in the U. S. will not pay a higher price (September 26th). 4-Anaconda Copper Mining Co. $40,000,000 expansion in Nevada to provide more than 30,000 (might be increased to 45,000) tons per year. DMPA would purchase the copper at 250 per pound for a limited period of time if it is not salable to industrial users at above this price. Production would start around 1953 (November 14th).

Jan 1, 1952

DETAILED programs for the Regional Meeting to be held at Boston, on Aug. 29, 30, 31, will be available on arrival at the Copley-Plaza Hotel, where registration will begin at 10 a. m. on Wednesday morning. The opening session will be non-technical in character and will be called to order at 11 a. m. Hector J. Hughes, Dean of the Graduate School of Engineering of Harvard University, and others will speak, and in the afternoon visits are to be made both to Harvard and Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Wednesday afternoon will be devoted mainly to the opening of an exhibit of geophysical instruments and methods at Tech. On the way back to the hotel a tour of Old Boston will permit the visitors to see many of the historic points of the city. A special meeting of the Board of Directors has been called to be preceded by the usual subscription dinner at the University Club at 6.30 p. m. Owing to limita-tions of room, invitations have been sent only to the usual list designated in the By-Laws, the Directors, past officers, chairmen of sections and of technical committees. The dinner and a brief business session of the Board will be followed by a technical session at the Copley-Plaza at 8 p. m. and this in turn by a buffet supper at the University Club at 10 p. m. Sep-arate entertainment is being provided for the women for the evening. Thursday will be devoted to technical sessions both in the morning and afternoon. If necessary to permit adequate discussion, an overflow session will be ar-ranged in the afternoon. In the evening, a subscription dinner will be given at the Copley-Plaza at which past-presidents John Hays Hammond and Robert H. Rich-ards will be guests of honor. It is promised that speeches will be short and dancing will be arranged for following. The women will be offered a luncheon and bridge party at one of the country clubs on Thursday, and Friday will be devoted to an all-day excursion for both men and, women. Members are asked to register promptly on arrival so that the various committees will know as early as possible for how many to provide. The major part of the technical program has been provided by the Committee on Geophysical Methods of Prospecting, and a series of papers of great value and interest in this new field has been brought together. Abstracts of substantially all of them are printed in this issue of MINING AND METALLURGY and the papers themselves will, with one or two exceptions, be avail-able in printed form at the meeting and later in the regular publications of the Institute.

Jan 9, 1928

By Harold Margolin, W. R. Hibbard, R. W. Fenn, H. P. Moore

Deformation lines, also called etch markings or strain markings, are non-effaceable lines developed in individual grains by etching a metal specimen which has been cold worked sufficiently to cause atomic non-conformity or slight orientation differences within the grains. Etching occurs more rapidly at these lines of high chemical reactivity to produce a result similar to that revealing grain boundaries. Wider etching effects forming bands have been found. They are believed to be bands of deformation lines which form areas of measurably different orientation from the crystal matrix. The crystallite rotations causing these bands have been shown by Barrett2 to contribute to deformation textures. Although deformation lines have been observed in many metals, the amount of deformation requireti for their appearance has been established only in general terms. Mathewson and Phillips3 observed the first appearance of deformation lines in cold-rolled alpha brass at about 20 pct reduction in thickness using the standard ammonium hydroxide hydrogen peroxide etchant. Price and Davidson4 noted defor- mation lines in common high brass after 26.5 pct reduction by cold rolling using the same etchant. Johnson6 observed dark thick forklike lines in 99.99 pct pure copper reduced 31.8 pct. Adcock6 observed deformation lines in 80-20 copper-nickel alloy rolled 50 pct. Samans7 found no deformation lines in alpha brass single crystals cold rolled 9.5 pct but they did appear after 25 pct reduction using ammonium hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide etchant. Barrett and Levenson8 observed deformation bands in drawn polycrystalline iron at very small reductions in area and noted that their initial appearance perhaps depends on grain size and other conditions. They reported deformation bands in a single crystal of iron reduced 6 pct by drawing. Brickg noted that deformation lines in 70-30 brass apparently associated with I I I I ) planes appeared after reductions of from 20-50 pct by cold rolling. Brick and Williamson10 noted that in single crystals of 70-30 alpha brass "as in polycrystalline brass, no deformation markings appeared until reductions exceeded 20 pct." Cook and Richards" reported that in Copper cold rolled less than about 50 Pet few strain markings were apparent but for higher reductions many strain markings appeared transverse to the rolled direction. In a review article Brick and Phillips12 noted that previous studies had not shown deformation lines in cold rolled alpha brass below 20 pet reduction and added that 4

Jan 1, 1949

By H. P. Moore, R. W. Fenn, Harold Margolin, W. R. Hibbard

Deformation lines, also called etch markings or strain markings, are non-effaceable lines developed in individual grains by etching a metal specimen which has been cold worked sufficiently to cause atomic non-conformity or slight orientation differences within the grains. Etching occurs more rapidly at these lines of high chemical reactivity to produce a result similar to that revealing grain boundaries. Wider etching effects forming bands have been found. They are believed to be bands of deformation lines which form areas of measurably different orientation from the crystal matrix. The crystallite rotations causing these bands have been shown by Barrett2 to contribute to deformation textures. Although deformation lines have been observed in many metals, the amount of deformation requireti for their appearance has been established only in general terms. Mathewson and Phillips3 observed the first appearance of deformation lines in cold-rolled alpha brass at about 20 pct reduction in thickness using the standard ammonium hydroxide hydrogen peroxide etchant. Price and Davidson4 noted defor- mation lines in common high brass after 26.5 pct reduction by cold rolling using the same etchant. Johnson6 observed dark thick forklike lines in 99.99 pct pure copper reduced 31.8 pct. Adcock6 observed deformation lines in 80-20 copper-nickel alloy rolled 50 pct. Samans7 found no deformation lines in alpha brass single crystals cold rolled 9.5 pct but they did appear after 25 pct reduction using ammonium hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide etchant. Barrett and Levenson8 observed deformation bands in drawn polycrystalline iron at very small reductions in area and noted that their initial appearance perhaps depends on grain size and other conditions. They reported deformation bands in a single crystal of iron reduced 6 pct by drawing. Brickg noted that deformation lines in 70-30 brass apparently associated with I I I I ) planes appeared after reductions of from 20-50 pct by cold rolling. Brick and Williamson10 noted that in single crystals of 70-30 alpha brass "as in polycrystalline brass, no deformation markings appeared until reductions exceeded 20 pct." Cook and Richards" reported that in Copper cold rolled less than about 50 Pet few strain markings were apparent but for higher reductions many strain markings appeared transverse to the rolled direction. In a review article Brick and Phillips12 noted that previous studies had not shown deformation lines in cold rolled alpha brass below 20 pet reduction and added that 4

Jan 1, 1949

By A. Rosen, P. Wynblatt, J. E. Dorn

The temperature, strain rate, and structure dependence of the flow stress in a poly crystalline Fe-2 pct Mn alloy was investigated between 77" and 370°K. It was possible to identify the low-temperature data from 77° to 160°K with Dorn and Rajnak's theory of the Peierls mechanism of plastic deformation. Above 160°K one or more thermally activated mechanisms must he operative; however, these were not identified in this investigation. The mechanistic basis for the rapid decrease in the flow stress of bcc metals with an increase in temperature over the low-temperature range is yet being debated. Various dislocation mechanisms have been suggested in the past but the agreement between the various proposed theories and the experimental results have not been definitive. In the present paper, the authors will demonstrate that the plastic behavior of polycrystalline iron containing 2 wt pct Mn plus interstitials agrees excellently with predictions based on the Peierls mechanism from 77" to 160°K whereas from 160" to about 370°K other as yet unidentified thermally activated mechanisms take over. Undoubtedly, the overlap of these mechanisms with the Peierls mechanism contributed to the difficulties of rationalizing the low-temperature behavior of iron and its alloys. I) EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES AND RESULTS Although extensive data are now available on the effect of temperature and strain rate on the flow stress of various bcc metals and alloys, it was, nevertheless, deemed necessary for the objectives of the present study to obtain highly accurate data of the type most pertinent for checking the theories on a series of well-documented work-hardened states. Iron containing 2 wt pct Mn was used in this investigation in order to obtain a lower ductile to brittle transition temperature than that for iron.' The additional elements present were 0.004 pct C, 0.05 pct 0, 0.004 pct S, 0.003 pct P, 0.006 pct N, and 0.001 pct Si. The as-received 3/8 by 3/4 in. bars were cold-rolled to 0.100-in. thickness, recrystallized under argon for 30 min at 1073"~, further cold-rolled to 0.063-in. thickness, and finally recrystallized under argon for 30 min at 1000°K. This treatment gave a stable reproducible equiaxed grain structure having an average grain diameter of about 90 p. Prior to the final recrystallization treatment, the sheet was machined into tensile specimens 1/4 in. wide having a 1.625-in.-long gage section. All specimens were tested in controlled-temperature baths on an Instron Testing Machine. For convenience in the theoretical analyses the data will be given in terms of the shear stress for flow, 7, the shear strain rate, f, and the shear strain, y. A series of three standard strain-hardened states were obtained by prestraining specimens at 300°K and at a shear strain rate of 7.68 x lo-' per sec to three stress levels of 6.89 X l08, 10.3 X lo8, and 14.5 x 10' dynes per sq cm, respectively. Immediately following this prestrain the temperature bath was changed and each specimen was pulled in tension at either f = 7.68 X lo-' or f = 3.06 X 10"3 per sec. In terms of the accuracy that was achieved, the values obtained did not deviate more than *0.1 X 10' dynes per sq cm and * 1°K from the reported values of stress and temperature and not more than *5 pct in the reported values of the strain rate. The tensile stresses were converted to shear stresses using a factor of 1/2. The shear stress for the initiation of flow at the test temperature was determined by taking a y = 6.16 x 10'3 offset. from the modulus line at which point good accuracy could be achieved in determining y and the associated flow stress 7, with only a negligible increase in the pre-

Jan 1, 1965

By Freeman Bishop

Mercury is the latest ecological disaster. It was believed to be no pollution problem because it is heavier than water and expected to fall to the bottom of streams. But the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) found that mercury in a dozen states and several Canadian provinces was being ingested by fish. A Deadly Dose First to sound the alarm was Canada when a graduate student's research revealed that mercury contamination in Lake St. Clair had reached 1.4 pmm. which is almost three times the 0.5 ppm the FDA's allowable maximum.

Jan 1, 1970

By Robert G. Nisle

In conducting a pressure build-up test on an oil well, it is often necessary to shut-in the well for a short time prior to initiation of the test. The effect of such a short tern shut-in on the resulting pressure build-up curve is derived. The derivation is based on the Kelvin point-source solution and is a straight forward extension of the fundarnental theory. The magnitude of the effect is evaluatecl and illustrated by an example. It is shown that if the production subsequent to the short term shut-in is at least 10 times the duration of the shrct-in, the effect will he less than 10 per cent. INTRODUCTION It often happens that before a pressure build-up test can be made an additional valve must be mounted on the wellhead, or on arrival at the well, it might be learned that the well had been shut-in several hours the previous day because of a shortage of tankage. In such cases the question is How will such an interruption of production affect the results of a pressure buildup test This work explains how to take account of such a short term shut-in in order that the test can proceed without further delay. The solution presented here makes use of the Kelvin point-source solution used by Horne1 in his treatment of the pressure build-up in wells. Use is also made of the super-position theorem. MATHEMATICAL DERIVATION The well is assumed to have been in production at a constant rate for a relatively long time (several days or more). It is then shut-in for a short time, after which it is again placed in production at the previous constant rate. It continues to produce at this rate until shut-in for a pressure build-up test. The Kelvin point-source solution is expressed by Eq. 1. The sequence of production rates is listed in Table I. TABLE 1 — SEQUENCE OF PRODUCTION RATES Time interval Production Rate At time AT the pressure will be the resultant of the sequence of production rates shown in Table 1. An expression for the super-posed effects may be derived from this table. (Effect of + q for T + ? T) + (Effect of - q for T + ?T-t,) + (Effect of + q for T + ? T - t,) + (Effect of - q for ? T) = Resultant........(2) The desired result is obtained by substituting the effect defined by Eq. 1 for the terms in Eq. 2. The result is Eq. 3. When the logarithmic approximation is made for the exponential integrals and the terms collected the result is Eq. 4. Let T — t2 = T = flowing time following short term shut-in t2 — t1 = 6 = duration of short term shut-in Then T - t1 = r + 6 Substitution of these quantities in Eq. 4 gives p(rw ?T) = P,, -When d<<t - AT then d—&apos;-, T— approaches 1. r + AT In this case the effect of the short term shut-in may be ignored. In order to get some idea of the numerical magnitudes involved take the worst possible case, when AT = 0, that is at shut-in. If the error is made less than some maximum acceptable value at this time, it will be less than the maximum for all subsequent times. d + r Let the difference between the value of y-— and 1 be less than 0.1. Then —6+r — 1 < 0.1 S < O.l T Therefore, if the flowing time following a short term shut-in is at least 10 times the duration of the short term shut-in, the error introduced by ignoring the short term shut-in will not exceed 10 per cent of T+AT A T

Jan 1, 1957

By Alfred H. Bell

Illinois produced 5 per cent more crude oil in 1934 than in 1933, because there was less curtailment, and. the value of the year&apos;s production at the wells was 35 per cent more than that of the previous year. The average price of Illinois crude oil in 1934 was $1.13 as compared with $0.87 in 1933, an increase of 30 per cent. The quotas of allowable production for Illinois during 1934, as authorized by Oil Administrator Harold L. Ickes, were as follows: January, February, March, 12,000 bbl. per day; April, May, 12,500; June, July, 12,600; August, 12,500; September, October, November, 12,000; December, 11,700. No other restrictions on production were in effect during the year until Oct. 11, when it was found necessary to prorate the fields to 75 per cent, a curtailment of 25 per cent below the quota fixed by the Federal Administrator. On Dec. 1 the curtailment was reduced to 18 per cent and on Dec. 18, to 15 per cent. Production in Illinois by months during 1934 was as follows: Barrels Barrels January...................... 393,000 July........................ 394,000 February.................... 337,000 August..................... 402,000 March....................... 394,000 September.................. 378,000 April......................... 373,000 October.................... 352,000 May......................... 411,000 November.................. 305,000 June......................... 392,000 December................... 321,000 Total ................... 4,452,000 In spite of higher prices for crude oil, fewer wells were drilled in Illinois in 1934 than in 1933 (Tables 1 and 2). Of the 26 wells drilled, 10 were oil producers, 8 were in proved fields and 2 were in a new pool in Wabash County, l½ miles south of the nearest production, one was a small gas well on the Stubblefield anticline in Bond County, one was an input well for repressuring in the Colmar-Plymouth field, McDonough County, and 14 were dry holes, mostly scattered wildcat tests.

Jan 1, 1935

By Irving B. Cadoff, Stojan M. Zalar

AgInTe2, CuInTe2, and all Proportions of CuxAg1-xInTe, forMed homogeneous single phase alloys after direct solidification from the nielt. X-ray analysis indicated a zinc-blel~de strzccture typical of the chalcopyrite compounds, and the electrical resistivity and Sccbeck coefficient values were in the semiconducting range. AuInTe, and AuxA4g,-, InTe, formed by what appeared to be a peritectic reaction (the thermal analysis curves showing more than one arrest) and were conseyue~ztly polyphase. Substitution of copper into AgIrzTe, resulted in a continuous transition in the room tenzperature Seebeck coefficient from the negative AgIzTe, to the positive CuInTe,. A zero coefficient was obtained at about Cuo.55 Ago.45 InTe, . The temperatzire variation was similar to that observed for the stoichiometric compounds, that zs, tendency towards "p" concEuction at elevated temperatures. The thernzoelectric figure of merit for the compo~uzds, as determined by the Putley -Harmnn method were in the range 10- to 10-7 "K-l; the thermal conductivities in the order of 0.15 cal per sec-cm-oK. INCREASED interest in semiconducting intermetallic substances is expanding much of recent research from simple binary compounds into polyatomic systems and solid solutions. Ternary compounds A&apos; represent a covalent extension of the binary semiconductors Within the a tin isoelec-tronic series, Ag-Cd-In-Sn-Sb-Te-I, divalent cadmium atoms in CdTe are being substituted for by monovalent silver and trivalent indium atoms to form the compound AgInTe, . By cross-substitution with elements of other isoelectronic series, a great number of ternary compounds A &apos;B"&apos;c? is possible. In all of them, however, a necessary though not sufficient condition for the covalent, semiconducting bond—that there be four sharing orbital electrons per atom—must be fulfilled. In AgInTe,, each silver or indium atom is tetrahedrally surrounded by four tellurium atoms, while each tellurium atom is co-valently bound to two silver and two indium atoms. Synthetic chalcopyrites A&apos;B"&apos;c~ were first recognized as potential semiconduct&rs by Goodman and Douglas.&apos; Austin, Goodman, and Pengelly discuss preparation difficulties and some electronic measurements on AgInS, , AgInSe, CuInSe, , AgInTe, , and CuInTe,. Chalcopyrites A B c2v are mentioned in papers attempting to classify and predict semiconducting behavior of intermetallic compounds; on the basis of saturated tetrahedral sp3 bonds,3 by specific selection criteria,&apos; and by crystallographic considerations."

Jan 1, 1962

By Raymond M. Howe

Additional data have been secured on the disintegration of furnace linings and the spalling of stove brick. The first article on the disintegration of furnace linings appears to have been written by John Pattinson in 1876.l The furnace involved was 85 ft. (25.0 m.) higher and 27 ft. (8.2 m.) in diameter at the boshes; after being in blast five years, the top brick became contaminated with carbon and disintegrated. An examination of the lining showed that the discolored, disintegrated brick were in a zone found from 35 to 67 ft. (10.6 to 20.4 m.) above the hearth; immediately below, in a zone extending from 22 to 40 ft. (6.7 to 12.1 m.) above the hearth, the brick were hard and porcelain-like in appearance. Analyses of samples taken from the different sections are given in Table I. The water-soluble portion found in the sample taken 39 ft. (11.8 m.) above the hearth had a composition approximately as follows: silica, 0.50 per cent.; lime, 0.04 per cent.; potash, 0.78 per cent.; soda, 0.20 per cent.; potassium chloride, 6.19 per cent.; moisture, 1.03 per cent.; total, 8.74 per cent. The carbon Table 1.—-Analyses of Samples Taken from Diferent Sections of Furnace . I ii In Iv v Section 67 Section 45 Seotion 39 Section of Original ft Above ft above ft above vitrified Lining Hearth Hearth Hearth Portion Per Cent. per Cent per Cent per cent. per Cent Silica........................... 55.70 55.60 55.67 47.60 37.07, Alumina........................ 35.50 35.40 30.00 26.47 23.18 Ferric oxide..................... 3.00 1.32 0.96 Lime........................... 0.23 0.06 0.17 Magnesia....................... 1.22 0.95 0.86 0.00 Potash......................... 2.60 2.10 5.30 7.54 21.59 Soda.........,.................. 0.45 0.42 1.67 0-76 6.28 Ca1bon ......................... 2.05 3.24 5.97 Carbon dioxide.................................. 2.. 17 Water...................................... 7.70 Water-soluble........................... 8.74

Jan 1, 1920

By A. L. Sweetser

Experience has shown how difficult it is to obtain information regarding laboratory-tests in connection with the chlorina-tion-process for the extraction of gold from its ores, and I therefore present the following method, somewhat in detail, for the benefit of those who may desire to pursue research work in this field. The ore chosen was a partly-decomposed porphyry, extremely siliceous and comparatively soft, and of an average value per ton of from $25 to $26 in gold and $0.68 in silver. The chemical analysis gave: Fe,O,, 3.35; FeS, 1.5; MnO,, 0.75; ZuCO,, 4; A1,0,, 3.20; H,O, 0.7 ; SiO, and insol., 83.50 per cent. The ore, first crushed to pass a 5-mesh screen, was coned and quartered until a 45-lb. sample was obtained. Samples for assay and analysis, taken from this lot by means of riffles, were crushed to pass a 100-mesh screen. The original sample was divided into 10-lb. lots, of which one was crushed to pass a 10-mesh screen; another through a 12-; the third through a 20-, and the last through a 30-mesh screen. Because of the production of an excessive quantity of fine material it was deemed inexpedient to crush finer than 30-mesh size—a decision the wisdom of which is proved by the data in Table I., showing the increasing ratio of slimes, in proportion as the ore is crushed finer. In order to determine the percentage of fines in the sizes of mesh selected, a weighed sample of ore was taken from each mesh, and a sample from the 10-mesh lot was passed successively through 20-, 40- and 100-mesh screens, and the percentage remaining on each screen determined. This process was repeated with the 12-, 20- and 30-mesh lots, with the results given in Table I.

Jan 1, 1908

By Howard N. Eavenbon

The low-volatile, or smokeless, coal field of southern West Virginia is in Fayette, Raleigh, Wyoming, Mercer, Summers and McDowell counties, in the extreme southern portion of the state, and extends into the adjacent counties of Tazewell and Buchanan in Virginia. McDowell County is the largest producer, with Fayette and Raleigh counties next. The total area of the field (Fig. 1) is approximately 1600 square miles, or 1,024,000 acres. The percentage of volatile matter in the various seams ranges from 15 to 26 per cent, The upper limit of true low-volatile coal is usually considered to be 23 per cent volatile matter; above this point, the coal usually is classed as medium volatile. This limit will be used in this paper. Geological Position of Seams The smokeless seams are among the oldest coal seams in the country, as the Pocahontas group of rocks is the lowest member of the coal-bearing series and rests on top of the Mauch Chunk red shale, in or below which no coal seams of any importance occur. The Pocahontas group, or Lower Pottsville measures, has a thickness of 750 ft. in southern McDowell County, which decreases to about 350 ft. at Prince, on the New River, in Fayette County, 50 miles to the northeast. In this group, at various points, 12 coal beds have been found, of which 4 have been found in workable thickness and are now being mined. The New River group, or Middle Pottsville measures, is just above the Pocahontas group and varies in thickness from 1300 ft. in southern McDowell County to about 700 ft. along New River. At various places, 16 beds of smokeless coal have been identified in this group, of which 5 have been found in workable thickness and are now being mined. A general columnar section of these strata is shown on Fig. 2. The workable seams in these strata, arranged in geological sequence, are as shown on page 77.

Jan 1, 1932

By T. Wasson

The same limitations&apos; that characterized 1931 existed in the old fields of Indiana and Illinois during 1932. Prices remained low. The average for the year for Illinois and southwestern Indiana was $1.032 as against $0.852 for 1931 and $1.616 for 1930. In September a curtailment of production of about 25 per cent became effective and was continued to the end of the year. There were no new discoveries and very little wildcatting was done. Considering the age of the wells, and the number still producing, there were few abandonments. The most outstanding thing about the old fields in these states is their long continued productivity. Illinois The fields along the southeast end of the LaSalle anticline had their peak of 33,686,000 bbl. in 1908. In 1932, with a 25 per cent restriction for 355 months, these fields produced 4,661,000 bb1.l There were 52 new completions (most of them in old territory) and of these 33 were dry, 8 were gas, and 11 were oil wells. The new oil wells had a total initial of 102 bbl., or an average of 9.3 bbl. per well. Nineteen of the new producers were in Crawford County. There were about 200 wells abandoned in the old southeast fields in 1932 as compared to 210 in 1931. The greatest number, 86, were in Lawrence County. To the end of 1932, the four major counties—Clark, Crawford, Lawrence and Wabash—had produced almost 394,000,000 bbl. from 92,160 acres. Better than one-half of this was produced in Lawrence County from 26,240 acres. The Dupo area of Sinclair County had no additions to production although four wells were drilled. On the Jacksonville structure in Morgan County, six gas wells with an average depth of 300 ft. were drilled to sands in the base of the Pennsylvanian. They produced an open-flow total initial of 2,000,000 cu. ft. This gas will be developed further to supply a local market.

Jan 1, 1933

By A. B. Parsons

LAST YEAR (1934) saw the completion of a ten-year program of reconstruction and modernization of the world&apos;s largest lead- smelting plant, that of the &apos; Broken Hill Associated Smelters Proprietary, at Port Pirie, South Australia, which has a capacity for smelting and refining 220,000 (short) tons of lead per year. It deals with the entire output of lead concentrates from the famous Broken Hill district in Australia, being owned .jointly by the three leading companies: North Broken Hill, Broken Hill South, and the Zinc Corporation. These companies, together with the Sulphide Corporation, are credited with a production of 198,000 tons of lead in 1934. When one says regarding any metallurgical plant that modernization is "completed" he should add "for the moment." Development in the art of metallurgy and in the equipment used never ceases; that which seems close to the last word today is likely to be obsolete in a few years even in a process so well standardized as smelting and refining lead. However, the reconstruction at Port Pirie has altered the procedure materially. More im-

Jan 1, 1935

By George Espey, George Sachs, G. B. Kasik

IT has been reported frequently that the hardness and strength vary over the cross section of cold-worked, particularly cold-drawn, material. Brass rod and wire usually have been found to possess a maximum strength and hardness near the surface.1,2 According to Sachs,&apos; the center fiber has about the same strength as a wire stretched by the same amount in a tensile-test machine, the strength increasing toward the surface (Fig. I). These differences are particularly large for wire given a small reduction on drawing through a die with a wide opening. However, with increasing reduction and hardness, a tendency to form a thin soft surface skin becomes apparent. On the contrary, copper wire has usually been found to possess a soft surface skin3-5 and it has been reported by Harris3 that during the cold-drawing of hot-rolled wire the surface layer becomes increasingly softer than the core, while the layer of maximum strength moves toward the core, it being found near the surface at first. The increase of strength and hardness from the core to the skin is readily explained by the observation that, in addition to the stretching, the layers of a rod or wire are sheared more the closer they are to the surface.1,6-8 However, the presence of a soft surface layer can be attributed only to an annealing effect. The source of such a softening might be the extremely high temperature that originates from the friction between

Jan 1, 1942

By G. B. Kasik, George Sachs, George Espey

IT has been reported frequently that the hardness and strength vary over the cross section of cold-worked, particularly cold-drawn, material. Brass rod and wire usually have been found to possess a maximum strength and hardness near the surface.1,2 According to Sachs,&apos; the center fiber has about the same strength as a wire stretched by the same amount in a tensile-test machine, the strength increasing toward the surface (Fig. I). These differences are particularly large for wire given a small reduction on drawing through a die with a wide opening. However, with increasing reduction and hardness, a tendency to form a thin soft surface skin becomes apparent. On the contrary, copper wire has usually been found to possess a soft surface skin3-5 and it has been reported by Harris3 that during the cold-drawing of hot-rolled wire the surface layer becomes increasingly softer than the core, while the layer of maximum strength moves toward the core, it being found near the surface at first. The increase of strength and hardness from the core to the skin is readily explained by the observation that, in addition to the stretching, the layers of a rod or wire are sheared more the closer they are to the surface.1,6-8 However, the presence of a soft surface layer can be attributed only to an annealing effect. The source of such a softening might be the extremely high temperature that originates from the friction between

Jan 1, 1942

Coal production during 1963 amounted to 446 mil- lion tons, an anticipated increase of about 6% over the 1962 production of 422 million tons. Electric consumption was 207 million tons, a continuation of its upward trend with an increase of about 7%. The metallurgical market consumed 77 million tons: the industrial market, 96 million tons; and the retail market, 26 million tons. Exports were 46 million tons. Modernization continues in the coal industry as it approaches the mid-1960&apos;s. The industry has shown a keen desire to explore and pursue new developments, new concepts and new managerial methods and techniques that have become so vital and important for industrial well-being.

Jan 2, 1964

By George Straghan, Ralph Thomas

OIL production in Kentucky in 1941 was 5,191,024 bbl., one barrel less than in the preceding year. The total completions for the state numbered 714, of which 256 were gas Manuscript received at the office of the Institute Feb. 26. 1942. * Geologist, .Kentucky Weal Virginia Gas Co., Ashland, Ky. † Geoloneist. Inland Gas Co.. Ashland. Kv. producers, 220 oil wells, and 227 dry holes. The total number was 95 more than in 1940. No new important oil or gas pools were discovered. The number of dry tests was large, although many of the dry holes could be considered wildcat tests. In western Kentucky, 365 wells were drilled, of which 145 were oil producers,

Jan 1, 1942