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By S. P. Holt

The chief use of scrapers at this mine has been on lead ore of milling grade, clean and dry, in stulled stopes, 50-100 ft. long, 5-12 ft. high, and pitching 20-30°. Scrapers have also been used to fill these stopes with waste. The first scraper used (Fig. 1) is modified from a Cleveland-Cliffs design, being only 30 in. wide. It is light, weighing but 95 lb., handles well, and-digs itself in; but it spills part of its load on a long haul. It could be improved by lengthening the side plates, but because of the double bent angle irons, it is difficult to make at mine shops and has been discarded. Fig. 2 shows where the light angle irons have failed, spoiling

Jan 1, 1923

By S. P. Holt

The chief use of scrapers at this mine has been on lead ore of milling grade, clean and dry, in stulled stopes, 50-100 ft. long, 5-12 ft. high, and pitching 20-30°. Scrapers have also been used to fill these stopes with waste. The first scraper used (Fig. 1) is modified from a Cleveland-Cliffs design, being only 30 in. wide. It is light, weighing but 95 lb., handles well, and-digs itself in; but it spills part of its load on a long haul. It could be improved by lengthening the side plates, but because of the double bent angle irons, it is difficult to make at mine shops and has been discarded. Fig. 2 shows where the light angle irons have failed, spoiling

Jan 1, 1923

By K. K. Landes

The north central and northeastern states supply over 50 pct of the chemical and metallurgical limestone produced annually in the United States, and Ontario is the leading source of this material in Canada. About three fourths of the chemical and metallurgical stone produced in this area comes from Michigan, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Ontario. The specifications, physical and especially chemical, for chemical and metallurgical stone depend upon the end use, but in general the tolerance for impurities is so low as to rule out most limestones and dolomites. Both high calcium limestone and dolomite are used in the metallurgical and chemical industries. The principal metallurgical use is as a flux in iron ore blast furnaces and open hearth steel furnaces. The major chemical uses are in lime burning and soda-ash manufacture. Other important uses include glass manufacture, in making calcium carbide, and in sugar factories. All deposits of high quality carbonate rock are definitely finite. Invariably and inevitably they diminish in either thickness or quality laterally so as to become unworkable as chemical and metallurgical stone. The size of these high quality lenses ranges from a few thousands of tons to hundreds of millions of tons. The best hunting for new supplies is in the geologic formations known to contain premium quality deposits. However, because of high transportation costs, carbonate rocks, to be workable, must be close to market, dollarwise. Definitions: Chemical stone is limestone or dolomite used as a raw material by the chemical industry. The major chemical uses are in lime burning and soda-ash manufacture. Other important uses include glass manufacture, making calcium carbide, and in sugar factories. The specifications for chemical stone depend entirely upon the end product. Some uses require dolomite, some require high calcium limestone; in a few instances, notably in lime burning, either type of carbonate rock can be used as raw material. As a general rule, a fairly pure stone is necessary and for certain particular uses the tolerance for some elements such as sulfur, iron, and phosphorus may be extremely small. Metallurgical stone is used as a flux in furnace operations, especially in the blast furnace where iron ore is converted into pig iron and in the open hearth furnace where pig iron is made into steel. Either limestone or dolomite can be used in the blast furnace, but only high calcium stone is charged in the open hearth (except for rice-size dolomite used as a refractory). There are no rigid chemical specifications for blast furnace stone, but low silica, alumina, sulfur, and phosphorus are desirable. For open hearth use, in addition to low magnesia, a very low sulfur content is also specified by many furnace operators. For furnace use, fluxstone also must be sufficiently shatter resistant that it will remain in lump form during transport and charging into the furnace. Commercial stone is the term applied in the trade for crushed stone used for roadstone and in concrete aggregate. Many of our best chemical and metallurgical limestones are too soft to qualify in the Los Angeles abrasion test for use as commercial stone. However, some limestones, and a higher proportion of dolomites, do qualify for commercial stone and so can be sold to either market. Place Value: Even the highest grade limestone is still a bulk commodity with a relatively low value per ton. As a matter of fact there is very little difference in the average price per ton between high grade chemical and metallurgical stone and crushed limestone used commercially. Most high quality stone is produced in large operations with consequent low cost per ton whereas most commercial stone is produced in relatively small local quarries. As in the case of other bulk commodities most limestone buyers pay more for transporting the raw material than the cost of the stone at its source. For this reason steel furnaces and chemical plants

Jan 1, 1961

By Scott Tzcrner

WITHIN recent years people have begun to realize the importance and significance of the mining and allied industries. The leading part the engineer plays in civilization is becoming recognized. However accurate quantitative knowledge of the industrial importance of mining is still seldom possessed except by those close to this business. It is true that there are a few who go to the extreme and represent the whole progress of civilization as a reflection of man's gradual mastery of mineral utilization, but on the whole, the magnitude of the-industry is underestimated. In this paper I shall call attention briefly to the importance of mining in the United States, in Canada, and in the world. Ordinarily, the annual primary mineral production of the United States is about $5,500,000,000. The average for the last 5 years has been a little over that, but last year, sadly enough, it was less than 31/4 billion. Just now, we are on the decline, and have been for the last two years. In Canada, the 5-year average was about $268,000,000, and last year it was 227 million. Due in part to gold mines (in 1930, for the first time, Canada's gold production exceeded that of the United States), the Canadian average is holding up better than ours. Average world mineral production over the last -5 years has been estimated at about $12,000,000;000 whereas in 1931 it was less than than 8 billion.

Jan 1, 1932

By D. J. Coolidge, H. L. Sheakley

THIS paper does not deal with all sands used in the glass industry in Missouri; it covers only that used in the plate-glass factory at Crystal City. However, it is probably safe to say that other sands, pro- [ ] duced throughout the state for this purpose, are of identical nature. The glass sand used in Missouri is commonly called the St. Peter deposit, which is ascribed to the Ordovician Rock series in the form of sandstone. This St. Peter deposit, aside from a few small outliers, covers a large area of eastern Missouri. It forms, through a broad curve, the northeast margin of the typical Ozark region between Cape Girardeau on the southeast and Mineola, Montgomery County, on the northwest. The belt is extremely irregular, varying from one to ten miles in width; its length is 150 miles in a straight line. [ ] The outcrop near the entrance to the Crystal City mine appears in the form of a sandstone bluff approximately 30 ft. high, running along Plattin Creek (Fig. , I). Above the sand rock an overburden of Joachim limestone appears, which, thickens to nearly 300 ft. and forms the hill commonly called Buck Knob. Test holes, where drilled at various points and the drillers' log indicate that the St. Peter deposit ranges in thickness from 63 to 71 feet. PROPERTIES OT THE ST. PETER SAND From an analysis of the glass sands of the St. Peter formation in Missouri, the follow-

Jan 1, 1942

By W. L. Saunders

(New Haven Meeting, February, 1909.) This paper deals specifically with heading-driving as distinguished from the broader term tunnel-driving. A heading is a pilot or path-finder for the main tunnel. Some headings are complete tunnels in themselves; that is, conditions at times warrant driving a heading the full diameter of the proposed tunnel. A tunnel 10 ft. in diameter might be driven to advantage through a single heading, provided the nature of the material admits, but it usually pays to drive rock tunnels of large diameter through the heading-and-bench system. Much de-pends upon the material, as in soft ground tunnels of much larger diameter are driven in a single heading. In mines, the tunnels, drifts, cross-cuts, adits, etc., are usually of small diameter, hence the driving of headings applies to completed tunnels in minim-work, except, of course, in cases like drainage-tunnels and main entries leading into coal-mines, where conditions call for tunnels of large diameter, approximating those driven for railway-service. In building aqueducts the tunnels are driven from 6 to 8 ft. in diameter up to 15 or 20 ft., while in railway-service the dimensions vary from 18 to 30 ft. in diameter. There is no department of rock-excavation so difficult as that of heading-driving. This work. also belongs to the most expensive class in rock-excavation. A heading is driven .directly in the solid. There are no lines of lesser resistance towards which to direct the energy of the blast, but. the material must be blown out by main force. The completion of the heading simplifies all the rest of the work of excavation. It is easy, for instance, to enlarge a heading either from above, below or oil the sides, by breaking towards the open face through holes approximately at right angles to the axis of the heading; or the enlargement sometimes takes place by holes driven outside

Apr 1, 1909

By F. G. Clapp

IT is to be hoped that no casual reader will erroneously refer to the latest publication' of the Division of Public Relations of the American Petroleum Institute, as being "Petroleum Facts and Fancies." The facts are so faithfully derived and the figures are so authentically sponsored by the highest sources that no person can read this valuable volume (287 pages and numerous tables) without being convinced that every- thing therein set forth is "the truth and nothing but the truth." Yet, having read the volume from the perspective of the world's petroleum industry and with a critical attitude that comes from years of study of the subjects discussed, I find myself tempted to cogitate and to envisage a few of the fancies that come to mind as a fitting sequel.

Jan 1, 1929

Beyer Barometric Condenser The Ingersoll-Rand Co. is now offering to the trade complete steam­condensing plants for all service conditions. This equipment includes the Beyer barometric condenser, for' which the company has secured the patent rights, Imperial duplex and Ingersoll-Rogler straight-line reciprocating dry vacuum pumps and, where required, Cameron simplex and centrifugal pumps. The Beyer barometric condenser is of the counter-current type, in which air and cooling water flow in opposite directions. The steam inlet is at the bottom of the condensing v el, the water inlet above and the air-removal opening at the top. The sheets of cooling water over owing the pool at the inlet point meet the entering steam. The two are brought into intimate contact by conical baffle plates which assist the water to absorb to its full capacity the latent heat of the steam. The non-condensable air liberated in the condensing action rises through the falling water to the removal point at the top, being cooled to practically the temperature of the incoming water. It is also to be noted that ample opportunity is given for the removal of the air content of the water before

Jan 8, 1916

By W. R. Hibbard

Evidence is presented which confirms previous findings that models of solution strengthening depending solely on lattice parameter changes are incomplete. Direct evidence for the Suzuki interaction of chemical effects was obtained from alloys with constant lattice parameter, for which solution strengthening was nearly independent of temperature from 300° to 20°K. SOLUTION hardening principles have been reviewed recently by Parker and Hazlett.' In addition, the interactions of dislocations and solute atoms were reviewed by Cottrell.' It is not proposed to review this information again here, but to refer only to those details which are pertinent to the developments which have occurred since these papers were published. Literature Survey To set the stage, it has been known for some time that solid solutions are stronger than the pure parent metals, and that the strength increases with increasing amounts of alloying element. One of the most extensive earlier investigations was that of Lacy and Gensamer,3 who reported that the solid solution strengthening of iron is a power function of the composition, that the relative strengthening is a function of the solubility limit, and that the rate of strain hardening is a function of the amount of solution hardening. Thus, the slope of the plastic portion of the stress-strain curve increases with increasing yield strength. An approach to the development of principles resulted from work by Gulyeav,4 who reported that the strengthening effect of solid solution alloys is periodic in character when plotted as a function of the atomic number of the solute. A more quantitative approach was to relate the amount of solution hardening to the lattice parameter of a solid solution. This was done quite early by Norbury,5 and later by Brick, Martin, and Angier,6 Frye and Hume-Rothery,7 and French and Hibbard. This relationship is only approximate in character. The next development was to relate the amount of solution hardening to lattice stress, as proposed by Frye and co-workers.9 They calculated what they called ionic overlap from the lattice parameter changes represented as a change in volume, using Bridgman's hydrostatic compression equation. The resulting correlation was somewhat improved as compared to the simple correlation with lattice parameter. The next step was carried out by Dorn, Pietrow-sky, and Tietz,10 who suggested an effect of valence differences in addition to the effect of lattice parameter. Their proposed parameter shows flow stress as a single valued function of the concentration and a relationship involving these two atomic variables. In addition, they contributed new data on the temperature dependence of solution hardening which indicated that it was a strong function of temperature for aluminum alloys. Allen, Schofield, and Tate11 carried the valency effect even further by reporting data indicating that with a given solvent element the stress-strain curve is a function of electron density, entirely neglecting the size factor, which varied by a factor of two. This evidence led to a quantum mechanical calculation by Cottrell, Hunter, and Nabarro,12 based on the formation of a dipole around an edge disloca-

Jan 1, 1959

By G. W. Thomas

Jan 1, 1967

By M. R. Pickus, I. W. Pickus

ORDINARILY age-hardening is thought of as being associated with a limited solubility of one metal in another. Much less has been written about the type of age-hardening that attends the formation of superstructures. Solid solutions generally have a disordered or random arrangement of atoms; that is to say, in a unit cell, such as that of the face-centered cubic lattice, there is no distinction between atomic sites. Atoms of a given metal may occupy cube corners or face centers. Under certain conditions, however, some alloys develop what is known as an ordered structure. In this case, cube corners would be occupied by only one type of atom and face centers by another type, Associated with this ordering process are many interesting changes in physical and electrical properties. Moreover, in many instances the alloys become susceptible to age-hardening. From the evidence now to be described, it appears that age-hardening in 14-carat gold alloys is due to the formation of both a super-structure and a precipitate. Alloys of the metals gold, silver and copper were known in antiquity. The available knowledge regarding their constitution has been ably summarized and extended by Sterner-Rainer,1 Janecke,2 Carter,3 Wise,4 and Coleman.5 Despite the long familiarity with these alloys and the numerous investigations of their properties that have been made, there is still much that remains unexplained. It has been known for a long time that the hardness of these alloys is closely related to the rate of cooling, Similar changes have been observed in the binary gold-copper system,6 one alloy of which corresponding to the formula Cu3Au, has been the subject of a careful and competent report by the English investigators, Sykes and Evans.7 They have established the fact that the shift of atoms from the ordered to the disordered condition takes place in some critical temperature range. At temperatures above the critical range the structure is random, and at temperatures below it the structure is ordered. No difference between these two structures is revealed by the microscope. Both have a face-centered cubic lattice and complete solubility, so that there is no evidence to suggest that the changes in properties are associated with a phase change, The more slowly the alloy is cooled, the higher is the degree to which the ordering process proceeds and the more marked is the increase in hardness. As experimental data were accumulated on 14-carat gold alloys, several contradictions arose. Certain observations tended to confirm the existence of a superstructure, while other observations seemed to be inconsistent with such a transformation. PRESENT INVESTIGATION As a focal point about which to develop this subject, it is expedient to consider first

Jan 1, 1943

By J. L. Gregg, J. L.

RECENTLY there has been considerable interest in the production and use of extra hard alloys composed primarily of tungsten and carbon. Dr. Hoyt's recent paper1 gives a good description of these alloys and describes their performance when used as tools. There are a number of these alloys on the market sold under various trade names, and it is the purpose of this paper to describe the results of an investigation of the structure of five of these alloys by means of microscopic and X-ray methods. The samples studied were in the form of small tools or wire-drawing dies, which were either purchased or supplied as samples. They were in some cases not supplied by the original makers but were furnished by the agents in this country, and we wish to call attention to the fact that they may not be truly representative of the materials supplied under the various trade names. No performance data are given and no inference as to the inferiority of one alloy as against any other is made. K. Schröter2 recently described methods for polishing alloys of this type for microscopic examination and has presented photomicrographs of several alloys. However, he did not identify their constituents or describe methods for their identification.

Jan 1, 1929

By Karl A. Bauer, Cornelis Bezemer

The deposition of calcium carbonate scale on surface and subsurface production equipment creates an operation problem in many oil fields. The formation water in which the carbonate-scale-forming components are initially dissolved becomes supersaturated with calcium carbonate as a result of the drop in pressure during production. The continuous flow of a supersaturated solution through the production equipment results in the growth of a dense layer of calcium-carbonate crystals. For a scale layer to be built up, the supersaturated formation water should contact the walls of the production equipment. The tendency for scale to be deposited, therefore, will be low, if the crude has a low water cut and if the water is finely dispersed in the oil. A scale problem will occur, if at a high water cut part of the water is present as free water. The rate of scale deposition will then be approximately proportional to the rate of free water production. Depending upon where the formation water becomes supersaturated, scale may be deposited in the flow line only, in both flow line and tubing, and in some cases even in the perforations and in the formation near the wellbore. In the South Sumatran fields (Indonesia) the main difficulties encountered due to the deposition of calcium-carbonate scale have been restriction of flow through tubings and flow lines, wear and abrasion of plungers and liners, and stuck plungers or wellhead valves. So far, the only methods of combating the *Presently associated with Brunei Shell Petroleum Co., Ltd.. Seria. scale problem have been routine acidizing and additional well pulling. As for the pumping wells, it was estimated that some 50 percent of the total well-pulling effort was directly attributable to scale deposition. The most promising alternative was to prevent the deposition of calcium carbonate scale by means of chemicals. Inorganic polyphosphates such as sodium hexametaphosphate and trisodium polyphosphate are known to retard the formation of scale by the "threshold action". They are adsorbed on specific faces of the crystal nuclei and thus prevent crystal growth, thereby stabilizing supersaturation. Polyphosphates are effective at very low concentrations ( a few ppm), and far less than stoichiometric quantities are required to keep the scaling ions in solution. Recent investigations on barium sulfate scale1 have confirmed this mechanism. The types of polyphosphate mentioned can be applied as concentrated aqueous solutions either squeezed into the formation, lubricated down the annulus or injected via macaroni string. Several squeeze jobs with polyphosphate solutions have been carried out in the South Sumatran fields, however, with disappointing results. Lubrication down the annulus and injection through a macaroni string were not considered attractive in this area because of the kind of equipment and the degree of supervision these techniques require. Polyphosphates are also available in a granular, glassy form, which, in contrast with the readily soluble types already mentioned, show an extremely low

Jan 1, 1970

By HERBERT G. MOULTON

FROM prehistoric times to our own day man has struggled against extremes of climate. Human life, originating in semi-tropical or temperate areas, was unable to progress into the northern latitudes until fire was discovered and some form of clothing provided. It was found possible to maintain life even in the hottest parts of the tropics, but only at a great sacrifice of comfort and efficiency compared with the more temperate zones, or in cooler areas with the protection of clothing and artificial heat. It was no accident, but the natural result of climatic conditions, that efficiency became the greatest and civilization the most advanced in areas where the natural climate was favorable, or in cooler zones where protection against severe cold could be se-cured by relatively simple methods of conserving or producing heat.

Jan 1, 1933

By H. J. de Haan, L. Schenk

Scope for Thermal Recovery in Shell's Heavy Oil Fields in Venezuela The main heavy oil reservoirs on the East coast of Lake Maracaibo (Fig. I), known as "Bolivar Coast", initially contained some 20 billion bbl of oil in place with gravities in the range of 10 to 15° API. The current total production rate is about 400,000 B/D. Since the recovery to date is on an average only 12.5 percent of the initial oil in place, these fields offer a vast potential for secondary recovery methods. The reservoirs are characterized by moderate depth (generally 1,000 to 3,000 ft; maximum 5,000 ft), good formation properties such as net oil sand thickness (50 to 300 ft), high porosity (30 to 40 percent) permeability (1 to 3 darcies) and oil saturation (initially about 80 percent) and high oil viscosity (100 to 10,000 cp in situ), all of which are favorable for the application of thermal recovery processes. Since 1957, steam drive, steam "soak" and underground combustion have been tested or are being tested in this area.1-3 This paper deals with a major steam drive test in the Tia Juana field. The test was commenced in Sept., 1961, on the basis of encouraging results of laboratory experiments and pilot field tests, which will be discussed briefly. Early Laboratory Investigation of the Steam Drive Process In 1956 a series of model experiments was carried out in the Koninklijke/Shell Laboratorium, Amster- dam, to investigate the displacement of heavy oil by steam.' The prototype studied was a horizontal, un-consolidated heavy oil reservoir, subjected to a linear steam drive. The model, representing a slab from this reservoir along the main flow direction, consisted of a steel tube filled with oil-saturated sand, provided with layers of rock at the top and bottom to simulate conductive heat losses to cap and base rock. Lateral heat losses, perpendicular to the main flow direction, were minimized by insulating the sides of the model. Heat flow and viscosity and gravity forces were scaled by taking the steam injection rate and sand permeability inversely proportional to the geometric reduction factor of the model, and using materials (oil, steam, cap rock, etc.) identical with those of the prototype. The main feature of the process was a frontal displacement mechanism that was observed within wide ranges of injection pressure and rate, oil viscosity, initial oil saturation and sand permeability. The high stability of this front can be attributed to the high volumetric steam flow rates, combined with the reduction in oil viscosity. High recoveries were obtained due to the low residual oil saturation of about 15 percent in the zone swept by steam. The latter value pertains to the specific test conditions (heavy oil, uncon-solidated sand) and may be lower for light oil, due to the effects of steam distillation. The applicability of this experimental approach is limited, as it does not take into account the fact that

Jan 1, 1970

By Robert B. Fulton

The use of industrial minerals by the chemical industry as raw materials for manufacturing and in processing spans a wide assortment of minerals. This chapter aims to supplement rather than duplicate the commodity chapters. Its objective, to describe the uses of industrial minerals in the manufacture of chemicals, is attained by considering minerals used by the chemical industry in terms of the chemical element required and by giving particular emphasis to market factors. The mineral aspect, which is covered in the commodity chapters, is subordinated and attention is focused on the chemical and market aspects. Condensing this broad subject into a few pages permits treating only the most important elements derived from industrial minerals. The elements derived from petroleum, hydrogen and carbon, which quantitatively dominate as raw materials for the chemical industry, are omitted, as are the metallic elements and the minerals covered in other "use" chapters such as phosphorous, potash, and nitrogen for fertilizers and titanium dioxide for pigments. After eliminating on this basis, our definition leaves six elements of major importance: boron, bromine, chlorine, fluorine, sodium, and sulfur. These elements are treated individually under separate headings. Salt brines have particular importance as raw material sources for the chemical industry as shown in Table 1 "Salt Brine Derivatives" (Anon., 1967), which charts the chemical compounds derived from four types of brines: (1) Owens Lake type brines which are sources of boron and sodium compounds; (2) Midland type brines from which bromine, iodine, and chlorides of calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium are derived; (3) Searles Lake type yielding boron, bromine, lithium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium compounds; and (4) Silver Peak type produced mainly for lithium. Table 2 (Jones, 1973) affords an overview of the chief industrial minerals, the chemical products derived from them, and end uses of the products.

Jan 1, 1975

By F. V. Lenel

This discussion is concerned with the method of manufacturing, the design possibilities, and the properties of pole pieces for direct-current electric . motors and generators made from iron powder. In such applications as pole pieces, the electric and magnetic properties of the material are of major importance, therefore they are discussed somewhat more fully. However, the main advantage in making pole pieces from powders lies in the rapid and inexpensive method of manufacturing these pieces, and in the flexibility of design, rather than in their superior electrical properties. As a matter of fact, pole pieces from iron powder have found their principal field of usefulness in small electric motors for controls and similar applications where the highest possible flux density in a given design is not required. Fig. I shows a number of different designs for pole pieces made from iron powder. The steps involved in fabricating them are: (I) briquetting—with each stroke of the briquetting press a complete . pole piece is produced; (2) sintering, and (3) sizing, which is a one-step coining operation in a hand-operated punch press. Conventionally small pole pieces are made from laminated electrical sheet steel stock by punching out the laminations and riveting them together (Fig. 2). The powder method has the advantage of being rapid and inexpensive; also, it makes possible the molding of pole pieces with a round hub, which are better from a design standpoint, as will be shown later. It is difficult to make such round-hubbed pieces from laminated stock. The pole pieces could, of course, be machined from solid stock, but this method is not widely used. The raw material for making pole pieces from powder is straight iron powder without the addition of any alloying ingredients. However, the grade of powder used is of considerable importance, as will be shown later when the influence of the grade of iron powder upon the magnetic properties is discussed. Pole pieces are briquetted in the same way that other iron-powder machine parts are made. Because the pole pieces are flanged—i.e., they have a hub and a wing section—they are made in presses that apply pressure from both ends. For best mechanical and magnetic properties, the density throughout the piece should be even and also should be constant from piece to piece. For that reason a powder of constant compressibility from batch to batch is needed for briquetting pole pieces. One method of obtaining the required magnetic properties is to sinter the pole pieces at temperatures higher than are used for most iron-powder parts. A temperature of 2400°F. and an atmosphere of hydrogen has been found satisfactory. No automatic furnaces of the roller hearth or mesh-belt type have yet been developed for such high temperatures. A box-type furnace heated with Globar heating ele-

Jan 1, 1945

By J. M. Weehuizen

Complete details are given of the drilling method by which two shafts were sunk at the new Beatm'x mine of Staatsmijnen in the Netherlands. The nature of the rock strata in the Dutch mining district determined choice of the drilling rather than the freezing method. Data for each step and details of the equipment used are given in the illustrations. Staatsmijnen was founded in 1902 with government financial backing, but it is run as a private enterprise, on a commercial basis, with the normal fiscal obligations. The company now has four mines in operation with annual outputs amounting to 7 1/2 million tons of coal. In 1952 it was determined that a new mine—the Beatrix—would be opened. Details of the shaft-sinking operation are described in this paper. SHAFT LOCATION The coal-bearing carboniferous rock in the Dutch mining district is overlain almost completely by soft water-bearing strata, which at the site of the new shafts are about 1600 ft thick. The sinking of the new shafts through this soft water-bearing overburden (Fig. 1) is a costly and time-consuming affair. From the two availaible sinking methods: 1) Poetsch's well known freezing method or 2) the drilling method of Honigmann-de Vooys, the latter was preferred, not only because of its relative cheapness, under the prevailing conditions, but primarily because by using the drilling process, a special type of shaft lining of steel, concrete, and bitumen could be used. The new shafts, located 330 ft apart, have an inner diameter of 18 ft, 4 1/2 in. The boreholes, which have a diameter of 25 ft and which were drilled through nearly 1600 ft of overburden and some 100 ft of carboniferous, each contain more than 29,000 cu yd—by far the largest in the world. DRILLING METHOD The drilling method is based on the use of mud-flush—a thin mixture of clay and water—to keep the borehole filled during the entire drilling period and during insertion of the lining (Fig. 2). The pressure of the mudflush against the borehole wall is greater than that of the water in the surrounding

Jan 1, 1961

CONTENTS PAGE ANDERSON, ARVID E., and CAMERON, FRANK K.-Recovery of Copper by Leaching, Ohio Copper Co. of Utah. Discussed by Thomas B. Brighton, H. C. Goodrich, Arvid E. Anderson, Thos. P. Billings, Frank K. Cameron 2 BEESON, J. J.-Mining Districts and Their Relation to Structural Geology. Discussed by Charles Keyes, Chas. A. Porter 4 DOBBEL, CHAS. A.-Deep-hole Prospecting at the Chief Consolidated Mines. Discussed by G. W. Crane 10 CRANE, G. W.-Notes on the Geology of East Tintic. Discussed by G. W. Crane, H. E. Havernor, N. O. Lawton 11 SACKETT, B. L., BARDWELL, CARLOS, JACOBSON, SIMON, and JENSEN, N. H. Lead Smelting in Utah. Discussed by D. W. Jessup, B. L. Sackett, E. H. Laws 13 BARDWELL, E. S., and MILLER, Roy H.-Pulverized Coal as Fuel for Copper Refining Furnaces. Discussed by L. D. Anderson, E. S. Bardwell, C. P. Crawford 15 WIGTON, G. H.-The Chief Consolidated Volatilization Process and Mill. Discussed by Thomas Varley, S. G. Olmstead, V. O. Lawton, O. C. Ralston.... 16 JESSUP, D. W.-Evolution in the Preparation of Ores for Lead Blast Furnaces. Discussed by W. Spencer Reid, D. W. Jessup, Carlos Bardwell 19 ALLEN, H. P., and MADGE, WM. C.-Chloridizing Mill of the Standard Reduction Co. Discussed by Thomas Varley, H. R. Hanley, H. P. Allen, George H. Dern 20 TUCKER, E. L., and HEAD, R. E.-Effect of Cyanogen Compounds on Floatability of Pure Sulfide Minerals. Discussed by Blarney Stevens 24 Mix, B. E., and BARKER, L. M.-Method of Unloading Ores and Coarse-crushing Practice at Magna Plant of Utah Copper Co. Discussed by W. C. Madge,B. E. Mix 25 KEIGLEY, C. T.-The New Byproduct Coke Plant of the Columbia Steel Corporation. Discussed by W. M. Grant, C. T. Keigley, A. C. Feilder 25 JACKSON, P. W.-Blast Furnace Plant of the Columbia Steel Corporation. Discussed by W. R. Phibbs, H. M. Henton 26 OLDRIGHT, G. L., KEYES, H. E., and WARTMAN, F. S.-Production of Ferric Sulfate and Sulfuric Acid from Roaster Gas. Discussed by G. D. Van Arsdale William E. Greenawalt, G. L. Oldright 27 MAZANY, M. S.-Braden Copper Company Caletones Smelter. Discussed by A. B. Young, G. L. Oldright 36 HARRINGTON, D.-Safety Methods in Utah Coal Mines. Discussed by Edward K. Judd, Otto Herres, Benedict Shubart, A. C. Watts, D. Harrington 36

Jan 12, 1925

By M. E. Bell

The term "operational research" was probably first used to describe work started under E. C. Williams, now Director, SHAPE Air Defense Technical Center, late in 1937 or 1938, at the Bawdsey Research Station of the British Air Ministry, a laboratory center concerned with the development of radar equipment. After the practicability of the early techniques had been demonstrated, a large (for those days) program of development and installation was authorized. It was very soon realized, both by the Royal Air Force and by the scientists that almost as important as the gear itself was the way in which it should be used. Accordingly, it was decided that some scientists should cooperate to study the way in which the equipment should be deployed and operated in conjunction with the Royal Air Force. To distinguish this work from the normal work of a research and development establishment, the term "operational research" was coined. It merely meant at this time that this particular section of scientists was to be concerned with the use of the gear rather than with its technical development and it seemed natural to those concerned to adopt the word "operations" which has a specific connotation in the armed forces.' This method was later extended to peacetime business enterprise, government operations and other human activities. Operations research appears to have penetrated the extractive industries more slowly and less completely than other industries, the military, or the government. This may be due (1) to a difference in the attitude of management towards operations research, or towards research of any kind, for that matter; (2) to unsuitability of the extractive industries for application of the operations research method; (3) to inaccessibility of the data; (4) or to a lack of trained personnel who are interested in applying operations research to the mineral industries.

Jan 8, 1963