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By A. H. Winckers

"The San Nicolás deposit is a complex fine grained polymetallic volcanogenic massive sulphide deposit located in central Mexico.Metallurgical testwork was carried out in 1999 and 2000 to develop a flowsheet. During the course of the metallurgical testwork it became evident that it would be impossible to develop an accurate head gradehecovery based model for the projection of metallurgy. It was suspected that variability in mineral texture was a predominate factor affecting metallurgy. For this reason it was decided to evaluate the applicability of QEM*SEM technology to this test program.This paper summarizes the metallurgical testwork and describes the evaluation and subsequent application of the QEM*SEM technology to characterize the mineral texture throughout the deposit. Finally it is shown how the QEM*SEM data are used in the mine block model to project the metallurgy.The QEM*SEM (Quantitative Evaluation of Minerals by Scanning Electron Microscopy) is an automated image analysis system developed by CSRO which provides quantitative numerical estimates of the compositional and textural properties of the mineral suite which govern the concentration process.INTRODUCTIONThe San Nicolás deposit, was discovered in 1997 through the application of geological and geophysical techniques. The property lies 60 km southeast of the city of Zacatecas on the central Mexican plateau as shown in Figure 1."

Jan 1, 2002

By Frank L. Hess

BERYLLIUM is demanding more of the limelight, and the output of beryllium copper (containing 2% to~ 3 per cent of beryllium) seems to have grown 60 per cent above that of 1936, which was double that of 1935. There is increasing interest in beryllium-aluminum alloys and small quantities are being marketed at $50 per lb. for the contained beryllium. Other alloys also can be produced. Further price decreases for beryllium copper (now $23 per lb. for the contained beryllium) seem , possible and desirable. No difficulty has been experienced in obtaining beryl and a 'reserve stock has been built up. One supplier heretofore found reliable has offered to furnish 200 tons per month. Supplies during 1937 have come from the Black Hills in South Dakota, Colorado. India, and South America

Jan 1, 1938

There has been a substantial increase in the use of rubber-tired front-end loaders in the mining industry in recent years. Concurrent with this increased usage, in the period of 1966 to 1970, there were at least 74 mining industry fatalities involving front-end loaders, or (on the average) in excess of one fatality per month. When the usage of front-end loaders by the construction industry and other industries, organizations, and agencies, such as the Government (i.e., Department of Defense), along with the uncounted numbers of serious, but non-fatal accidents, are included in the picture, the safety record for front-end loaders, of necessity, becomes a serious subject for study. There is an urgent need for attempts to be made to eliminate or reduce the number of safety hazards; to decrease the confusing diversity of controls designs found on present front-end loaders; to improve the maintenance and operating procedures; to formulate better personnel policies; to increase management and official awareness of the extent of the problem, in both industry and the Government; etc.; in order to decrease the number of accidents. Part of the problem may be traced to the fact that the operator of a front-end loader is frequently designated a "heavy equipment operator." This implies that he is automatically qualified to operate any model, of any manufacturer's, wheeled or tracked, front-end loader as well as many other types and classes of heavy equipment. Contrary to automotive practice, the complement of primary operating and emergency controls varies widely from model to model, as well as from manufacturer to manufacturer. Not only are certain controls present on one front-end loader model and absent on others, but there are significant differences in the modes of control operation, in the functions performed by superficially similar controls, in the location of the various controls, etc.

Jan 1, 1973

The Burra Burra Mine is situated in complexly folded Torrensian dolomites and limestones forming the faulted axial region of a major anticline. The orebody mined was largely of secondary origin and confined between two faults, Kingston's on the west and Tinline's on the east. The orebody occurred at the junction between cherty dolomites and a clastic limestone with a large mass of marble breccia along its western margin. Secondary ore consisted of carbonates and oxides in the breccia and the ore bed and detrital copper minerals deposited as part of a clastic breccia in sinkholes and solution cavities in the dolomites and ore beds.Primary sulphides occur disseminated in the marble breccia and in stratiform habit in the ore bed. Kingston's so-called "lode" may be mineralized marble breccia.The marble breccia appears to be of diapiric or sedimentary origin and there is evidence to support a sedimentary origin for some of the copper sulphides. No igneous rocks have been discovered within 20 miles of the mine and any hydrothermal activities were probably at comparatively low temperature. The possibility of extensive stratiform and disseminated copper sulphide mineralization in the marble breccia and ore bed requires testing by further drilling and geophysical surveys.INTRODUCTIONThe re-interpretation of Burra Burra geology and ore formation discussed in this paper resulted from a comprehensive investigation of the mine and its surrounding district begun in December 1961 and in progress at the time of writing. (February 1963). The decision to investigate Burra Burra was taken after a thorough examination of records and reports of all non-ferrous metal deposits throughout South Australia and was given impetus by a report by Thomson (1963) suggesting a sedimentary origin for the copper mineralization. Although the author does not concur fully with Thomson's interpretation there is no doubt that sedimentary processes have played an important part in the formation of the Burra Burra copper deposit, nor is there any doubt that igneous activity played no part.

Jan 1, 1963

By Edward L. McHugh, Louis J. Denes, Jami M. Girard

A prototype portable hyperspectral imager that operates in the visible and near-infrared ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum was field tested at an open-pit mine. The tests were sponsored by the Spokane Research Laboratory, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, as part of an investigation of remote sensing technologies for use in detecting and monitoring conditions in surface mines that could lead to catastrophic slope failure. The spectro-polarimetric imager, built at the Carnegie Mellon Research Institute, employs an acousto-optical tunable filter (AOTF) to control wavelength, a phase retarder to measure polarization signatures, and a digital camera and computer to capture data. The spectral range of the instrument is 450 to 1000 nm at 10-nm intervals. High-resolution hyperspectral images of highwalls, outcrops, hand samples, and drill core were collected in the field. Spectra from the images closely matched those of specific minerals present and were used to classify the images. The field tests were designed to examine the feasibility of using spectral imaging to assist in compiling objective geologic maps of mine highwalls and other hazardous slopes. Results illustrate the capability of the method to discriminate materials within the image, validating the concept of simplified spectral imaging. A contributing factor in many slope failures is the presence and distribution of mechanically incompetent, clay-rich altered rock in slope faces. Spectral features of clays and other minerals are more distinctive in the short-wave and mid-infrared part of the spectrum; the capabilities of the instrument need to be extended into this range to apply the AOTF-based technology to common geologic materials. A field-portable hyperspectral imager could find broad application in remotely identifying diverse materials from solids and coatings to gases.

This Bureau of Mines publication presents an overview of mine electrical power systems research currently being conducted by the Bureau. The papers, given at a Technology Transfer Seminar, emphasize the increasing importance of research related to the safety considerations of underground coal mine electrical systems. Selected topics are included that summarize results of research in the areas of electrical shock prevention, explosion-proof enclosures and load centers, discriminating circuit breakers, and trailing cables. Other topics discussed at the seminar are published as separate sections of the Bureau of Mines Hand- book "Application Notes--Mine Electrical Power Systems."

Jan 1, 1982

By C. S. Spirakis, A. V. Heyl

Paper presented at the conference Economic geology in Europe and beyond II, models for mineral deposits in sedimentary basins, held in Keyworth, UK, 13-14 April 1994. The modified basinal brines, containing partly oxidised sulphur species, scavenged metals from basement rocks and sediments and transported them through the host rock, which contained local concentrations of organic matter. Reacting in various ways with the mineralising solution as temperatures at the sites of mineralisation changed, organic matter caused the precipitation and dissolution of a variety of minerals in the ore zones; it was organic matter that caused all of these reactions to occur at the same sites. Thus all components of the mineralising fluid - salt, water, heat, sulphur and metals - were obtained within the ore district. The siting of the mineral districts was related to the locations of faults through U- and Th-enriched granites beneath sediments containing basinal brines, and the locations of ore deposits within the districts were controlled by local concentrations of organic matter

Apr 1, 1995

The occurrence of molybdenite in a small shaft in the western margin of the Wuuluman Granite in central western New South Wales is noted. Full petrographic and mineragraphic descriptions are given of a mineralized contact zone between the granite and a basic hornfels.Mineralogical data .indicate a similarity between this mineral occurrence and other occurrences in larger mines remote from the granite.

Jan 1, 1968

By Miklos D. G. Salamon

If all stratifications are horizontal, the computation of surface deformation induced by coal mining involves the prediction of roof and floor convergence and then the transfer of the effects of this relative displacement to the surface through the use of the appropriate influence functions. A laminated model, in the form of a quasi- continuum, provides a simple means of computing the approximate convergence distribution and leads to the Gaussian distribution as the influence function. The ideas presented in this paper represent a subtle but fundamental generalization of the influence function Method. It is postulated that the influence of a small area of extraction is proportional to the roof and floor convergence and not to the thickness extracted. This difference in definition removes many conceptual difficulties associated with the influence function method. To demonstrate the utility of the model, the surface disturbances induced by the extraction of a parallel sided long panel are derived. Formulae giving subsidence, tilt, horizontal displacement and strain are given.

Jan 1, 1989

This study explores two evolving 3D surveying technologies, photogrammetry and laser scanning, and applies them to deformation monitoring of rock faces and mine highwalls. A quantitative analysis focused on 3D coordinate determination is performed. Furthermore, a qualitative assessment directed at the practicality and viability of each system operating near a rock face or in a mining operation is undertaken to reveal one systemÆs deficiencies over the other. Two photogrammetric and four laser scanning surveys aimed at optimising accuracy and precision within a short period of data acquisition are conducted on the rock face at Organ Pipes National Park, Keilor, Victoria. The accuracy and repeatability of each survey is determined using a combination of iWitness photogrammetric, and Cyclone laser scanning software. The 3D coordinates of targets placed on the rock face are determined by triangulation and resection principles within a bundle adjustment. The coordinates determined by each system are then compared in a 3D transformation. Controlled deformation conditions are established to determine the precision to which each system can detect movement in the rock face. An object of known dimensions is placed on the rock face to simulate deformation. The relative orientation of images taken for the pre- and post-deformation photogrammetric surveys provide an overall 3D point accuracy of 1.255 mm and 1.804 mm respectively. A 3D transformation shows discrepancies of less than ¦22 mm (RMS) between the geometry of the photogrammetric and laser scanning models. Both systems are able to detect the simulated deformation to a precision of 50 mm. This work also identifies how to obtain millimetre accuracy for 3D coordinate determination of rock faces, thereby providing a quality data set for surveyors, geotechnical engineers and mine geologists. Photogrammetry is shown to be a mobile, time and cost-effective technique that is more amenable to mining operations than terrestrial laser scanning. However, both systems demonstrate that they are capable of detecting movements that may lead to failures in the rock face, and possibly endangering human life. The implications are significant for surveyors, geotechnical engineers and mine geologists working in mining operations where enhanced safety conditions, increased productivity and lower operational costs are important considerations.

Jan 1, 2009

By Christopher J. Bise

INTRODUCTION A mine's power system represents the driving force behind all of the extraction and auxiliary operations, because the production and transportation of mined material and the operation of equipment, such as fans and pumps, are all dependent upon a power source. Once, compressed air was the primary power source in mining; today, however, electrical power dominates. This chapter reviews the basic theories of com- pressed-air and electrical power and provides several examples of applications in mine power systems. COMPRESSED-AIR POWER General Compressed air has been, and should continue to be, an important source of power in mining operations. It has been used as a means of blasting coal in conventional mining and is widely used to operate stopers, mucking machines, and other air tools in both coal and hard-rock mines. Such applications demonstrate the suitability of compressed air for applications requiring linear motion, but it is also utilized for its reliability and safety. A compressed-air system is composed of a compressor, a receiver, a distribution network, and the air-operated machines. A compressor takes in air at normal atmospheric pressure (free air) and compresses it to a higher discharge pressure. The discharge pressure must be high enough to overcome the friction in the distribution system of pipes and hoses and deliver the compressed air to the machines at the pressure recommended by the manufacturer. The most common type of compressor used in mines is the reciprocating compressor in which the air is compressed by a piston in a cylinder. An air receiver is a container or storage tank that is located in the distribution system between the compressor and the machines. It stores compressed air, when the full capacity of the compressor is not being used, and gives a more steady flow of air to the machines. The distribution network consists of pipes, Oalves, elbows, tees, and hoses that transmit the compressed air from the receiver to the machines in the mine. It is essential that the distribution system be designed with the proper sizes and lengths of pipe, hose, and other components to keep pressure losses well within allowable limits. The air-operated machines consist primarily of drifters, stopers, pluggers (sinkers), slushers, and several other pieces of equipment. Compressor Operation Every compressor is made up of one or more basic elements; a single element, or a group of elements in parallel, comprises a single-stage compressor. Many compression problems involve conditions beyond the practical capability of a single compression stage. Too great a compression ratio (absolute discharge pressure divided by absolute intake pressure) may cause excessive discharge temperatures or other design problems. It, therefore, may become necessary to combine elements or groups of elements in series to form a multi- stage unit, in which there will be two or more steps of compression. The number of stages commonly used in reciprocating compressors is as follows: Pressure Number of stages 0- 150 pig 1 80- 500 psig 2 500-2500 psig 3 2500-5000 psig 4 When pressure is referred to as pounds per square inch gage (psig), it means the pressure (in pounds per square inch) above barometric pressure as measured by a gage. The sum of barometric pressure and gage pressure is the absolute pressure (in pounds per square inch). The gas is frequently cooled between stages to reduce the temperature and volume entering the subsequent stages, thereby reducing the work required for compression. The basic reciprocating compression element is a single cylinder compressing on only one side of the piston (single-acting). A unit compressing on both sides of the piston (double-acting) consists of two basic single-acting elements operating in parallel in one casing. The reciprocating compressor uses automatic spring-loaded valves that open only when the proper differential pressure exists across the valves. Intake valves open when the pressure in the cylinder is slightly below the intake pressure. Discharge valves open when the pressure in the cylinder is slightly above the discharge pressure. In Fig. 1, Diagram A shows the basic element with the cylinder filled with air at atmospheric pressure. On the corresponding theoretical pressure-volume

Jan 1, 1986

"The measurement of error in assays collected as part of a mineral exploration program or mining operation historically has been undertaken in a variety of ways. Different parameters have been used to describe the magnitude of relative error, and each of these parameters is related to the standard measure of relative error, the coefficient of variation. Calculation of the coefficient of variation can be undertaken in a variety of ways; however, only one produces unbiased estimates of measurement error: the root mean square coefficient of variation calculated from the individual coefficients of variation.Thompson and Howarth’s error analysis approach has also been used to describe measurement error. However, because this approach utilizes a regression line to describe error, it provides a substantially different measure of error than the root mean square coefficient of variation. Furthermore, because regression is used, Thompson and Howarth’s results should only be used for estimating error in individual samples, and not for describing the average error in a data set. As a result, Thompson and Howarth’s results should not be used to determine the magnitudes of component errors introduced during geochemical sampling, preparation, and analysis.Finally, the standard error on the coefficient of variation is derived, and it is shown that very poor estimates of relative error are obtained from duplicate data. As a result, geoscientists seeking to determine the average relative error in a data set should use a very large number of duplicate samples to make this estimate, particularly if the average relative error is large."

Jan 1, 2007

By John R. Bartels

This Bureau of Mines report describes the development of a preliminary design for a novel, protected, cab-shuttle car for use in working seam heights down to 40 in. Because of the severe restrictions imposed by low-coal operation, Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) regulations only require canopy protection on shuttle cars operating in seam heights of 42 in or greater. MSHA routinely grants variances for canopy use in seams 48 in high or less. The design was generated by giving the operator needs equal priority as related to machine performance parameters. Cab-shuttle car concepts that led to the recommended design are described, along with criteria and testing used to evaluate their potential effectiveness.

Jan 1, 1988

By W. D. Maier, H. V. Eales

Paper presented at the IAGOD international symposium on mineralization related to mafic and ultramafic rocks held in Orleans, France, 1-3 September 1993. A lithological and geochemical study revealed significant lateral variation of the interval over 170 km of strike, from about 30 m at the Union Section to 220 m near Brits. The cumulates also become more evolved and leucocratic with distance from the Union Section both towards the NE (Amandelbult) and SE (Impala, Rustenburg and Brits). It is inferred that the persistent heat flux from a putative major feeder zone near the Union Section impaired deposition of felsic cumulates in the vicinity, delaying crystallisation of successive phases in parts of the chamber near the feeder. New influxes were therefore deposited on a footwall of varying thickness and lithology in response to different degrees of crystallisation and accumulation along strike. The development of cyclic units of chromitite, harzburgite, pyroxenite, norite and anorthosite was interrupted at different stages in different parts of the chamber

Apr 1, 1994

By Gunhild Hennum, Tewodros Tefera, Gisle Håland, Annette Jahr

"Abstract The Gudrun field is located west of Stavanger in the North Sea at water depth of 109 m. A jacket substructure was selected to support the topside and was installed in 2011. The jacket shall be able to support 16 of 0.762 m (30 in) diameter conductors and is equipped with a drilling deck to allow for pre-drilling by a jack-up rig through the jacket. In general the soil conditions below mudline comprise of a thin top layer of very loose to dense sand overlaying several layers of sandy clay, ranging in stiffness from firm to hard. Below some 30 m depth the soil consists of layers of medium dense to dense silty sand overlaying very hard sandy clay containing thick beds of sand to 100 m depth or more below mudline. The jacket is secured to the seabed by twelve 2.438 m (96 in) diameter steel pipe piles, three at each pile cluster located at the four legs of the jacket at sea floor. Different design methods were used to determine the pile penetration depth. Pile drivability was evaluated using best estimate and upper bound soil parameters. The pile driving and blow count record show that the target penetration was reached as predicted. This paper discusses the different methods used to determine the pile capacity, target penetration depth and the drivability analyses made for the Gudrun jacket piles. The soil resistance during pile driving is back-calculated from the pile installation data and compared with the prediction made.IntroductionThe Gudrun platform is located west of Stavanger in the North Sea at water depth of 109 m. A jacket substructure was selected for the Gudrun platform. The general Gudrun platform jacket configuration is to a large extent dictated by the topside layout, the requirements for support points enclosing the well slots and access for the jack-up rig. The Gudrun platform jacket is a traditional 4 legged structure with a vertical side towards the jack-up rig. At the seabed the jacket is quadratic with a base dimension of 40 by 40 metres. Figure 1 shows the Gudrun jacket during load-out from the fabrication yard to the transport barge. At the site the jacket was lifted off the barge, upended and placed on the seabed by the installation vessel. The jacket is secured to the seabed by twelve 96"" (2.438 m) diameter steel pipe piles, three at each pile cluster located at the four legs of the jacket at sea floor. The target penetration of the piles is 47 m."

Jan 1, 2014

By Matthew P. Wickham

The use of existing mine records in conjunction with an appropriate classification scheme can be used successfully to identify and characterize the composition of existing waste rock facilities where traditional approaches based on sampling may be impractical or costly. This paper describes an alternative approach used in an acid rock drainage investigation at a porphyry copper mine with numerous waste rock dumps of varying ages and composition. The approach integrated detailed lithologic and mineralogic information about the ore body and overburden materials with records of pit development and dispatch. A waste rock characterization matrix was developed for the site to meaningfully classify lithology and mineralogic composition of the waste rock. The approach resulted in a focused geochemical testing program and facilitated interpretation and application of the test results.

May 1, 2002

By Graylin R. K, dea T. R, O&apos

The Wolgan Seam of the Upper Permian IlIawarra Coal Measures of the Western Coalfield of New South Wales consists of high volatile, low sulphur, medium hard coking coal with high fluidity. This seam, 1·8-2·4m thick, in the Wolgan area, dips gently at 1°_20 ENE and lies at 160-440m below the deeply dissected surface of the western margin of the Blue Mountains plateau.A detailed study of the deposit has revealed that the Wolgan Seam consists of four main coal plies separated by three distinct stone bands. Each of these subunits is lenticular and displays individual physical, chemical and mineralogical characteristics which exhibit distinct spatial distribution patterns across the area. Most noticeable is the presence of long linear ESE-trending zones of low ash - high volatiles - high fixed carbon - high fluidity which delineate the major distributary pattern within the deltaic environment of coal formation.This seam contains some of the highest fluidity coal in the world.The Wolgan area, close to the western margin of the Sydney Basin, is characterized by:I. a regional, closely spaced, homogenous joint fracture pattern dominated by an orthogonal pair set trending 3400 and 0700, to which the face- and butt-cleat directions respectively of the Wolgan Seam are sub-parallel, and2. a more widely spaced, heterogenous, cross-cutting pattern of regional structural fractures. Zones of bad roof conditions are probably associated with these lineaments which are subvertical and trend in three majordirections, viz., 005°,035° and 115°.

Jan 1, 1980

By J. G. Pippenger

Rio Tinto Coal Australia (RTCA) developed the Meandu Mine in Queensland, Australia in 1983 to supply thermal coal to the adjacent and newly constructed Tarong Power Station (TPS). In designing the mine, RTCA selected Meandu?s best economic reserves for a 27-year life based on station owner Tarong Energy Corp.?s (TECs) estimated life for TPS. That 27-year plan changed dramatically in the early 2000s when TEC approved life extensions to TPS?s four existing units plus construction of a fifth unit. After reviewing Meandu?s remaining reserves, RTCA decided the nearby Kunioon reserve offered the more economic option for maintaining deliveries beyond 2010. Those plans changed again in 2007 when TEC chose to purchase the Meandu Mine and nearby reserves. TEC then selected Thiess Pty Ltd. (Thiess) to continue operating Meandu until the new mine at Kunioon could be developed. After assuming operation of the mine in 2008, Thiess began a review of Meandu?s remaining reserves and found considerable coal available with economic potential. Working jointly with TEC, Thiess performed several analyses on Meandu and subsequently the Kunioon coal reserves. The results changed TEC?s decision from expediting Kunioon?s construction to instead continuing Meandu?s operation for up to 15 additional years.

Jan 1, 2011

By Galen G. Waddell

The Deep Creek zinc and lead mine afforded an excellent example of a relatively small underground mine operation that approached the low mining costs of large, highly mechanized mines. An open stope mining method incorporating sublevel benches and vertical long holes was used (fig. 1). Detailed descriptions are given on the exploration program, stope development, stoping procedures, and pillar removal. Pressure grouting was used to check the inflow of water and thus prolong the life of the mine. Statistics on mining costs and on electric power consumption, haulage from mine to mill, and milling costs are included.

Jan 1, 1963

By Bradley V. Johnson, Robert J. Timko, Edward D. Thimons

Water-jet-assisted cutting involves the use of a mechanical cutting bit in combination with a high-pressure water jet directed just in front of the bit tip. Such a jet can offer benefits in terms of improved cutting, reduced dust and fines, and improved bit wear. The Bureau of Mines, through a contract with the British National Coal Board, has researched the use of water-jet-assisted cutting on roadheaders. After several engineering design problems were overcome, this program led to the successful underground testing of these roadheaders. Today, more than 60 water-jet-assisted roadheaders are in operation around the world and numerous others are on order. This paper details the evolution of these machines and the benefits to be gained by their use.

Jan 1, 1987