Search Documents

By E. H. Wells, A. Andreas

Greater progress than in any previous year was accomplished by the oil industry in New Mexico in 1936. The total number of completions in the state was 631, of which 549 were oil wells, 21 were hydrocarbon gas wells, three were carbon dioxide gas wells, and 58 were dry holes. The total oil production for the year was 26,804,446 bbl. Compared with the production for 1935 of 20,228,947 bbl., this represented a gain of 32.5 per cent. Of the total production, 25,337,382 bbl. came from Lea County. The average daily nonmarginal well allowable for that county was 115 bbl. the first of the year and 86 bbl. at the close. Production was regulated by the New Mexico Oil Conservation Commission,

Jan 1, 1937

Meeting, June 26, 1913).-On the petition of 29 members residing in and near San Francisco, Cal., the San Francisco Local Section was established. The territory of the St. Louis Local Section was established to include the following States and parts thereof: All the State of Missouri ; That part of the State of Illinois south of and including the city of Urbana ; That part of the State of Indiana south of and including the city of Indianapolis ; That. part of the State of Kentucky west of and including the city of Frankfort ; That part Of the State of Tennessee west of and including the city of Nashville That part of the State of Arkansas north of and including the city of Little Rock.

Jan 7, 1913

"Butte originated as a placer mining camp. The first gold discovery was made in the year 1864, near what is now Main Street. Placer mining was vigorously prosecuted along Silver Bow Creek and in Missoula, Buffalo, Town and Parrot gulches for a period of five years, at the end of which time, in 1870, the camp was practically deserted. In the meantime, the quartz veins so prominently traceable over the hillsides were located, the first location being made by W. L. Farlin and called the Black Chief claim, and later restaked as the Travona. Reasoning from the presence of the gold placers, free-milling gold ores were eagerly looked for by the early prospectors. Claims covering the great Rainbow and other silver lodes were located in the sixties. The presence of valuable silver ores in these veins caused the staking out of many claims, believed to be valuable only for silver, but which later proved to be enormous copper producers.Treatment of these early discovered rich ores was first attempted in arrastres. Later, stamp mills were built. The Centennial dropping 10 stamps, was the first, and in 1875 Mr. Farlin built the Dexter 10-stamp mill, intro¬ducing chloridizing-roasting. More successful processes were soon introduced and several large mills built, among which were the Alice, Lexington, Silver Bow, Moulton and Bluebird, in all representing a total of 290 stamps. The silver mining industry reached its zenith in 1887 and declined rapidly in the early nineties, following the sudden drop in the price of silver in 1892.During this period of silver mining activity the business of copper mining was making rapid strides. Development of the veins, located as silver veins, had uncovered copper ore in many instances. There was great activity in ""claim staking'' in the years from 1871 to 1879, during which period most of the claims covering the present productive copper area were located."

Jan 1, 1913

By Emil-Paul Lorenz

Considered as a whole, the mineral resources of the Turkish Republic (Anatolia) are in their untapped virgin state, and the little development shown is not the result of modern systematic geologic exploration but the continuation of the ancient open-pit mining methods of the Orient. When I came to Turkey in 1924, I found myself confronted by a formidable task because of the lack of preliminary geologic mapping. Today this condition has not essentially changed; less than one per cent of the country is covered by topographic mapping adequate for modern requirements. However, I was able to bring a semblance of order in a presentation of the mineral deposits of this country, by tracing the story of the mineral deposits that showed surface evidence of their existence. At present only the easily discovered mineral deposits of coal, copper, and lead-silver ores are being exploited. In the case of coal, of 3,000,000,000 metric tons available, only 100,000,000 have been mined. The same is also true for copper, lead-silver, and other ores, as shown in Table 1.

Jan 1, 1948

By L. R. Woodyatt, H. J. Beattie, C. T. Sims

Theories correlating the formation of u and related intermetallic compounds to the electron-per-atom density of binary and ternary alloys have appeared regularly in recent technical literature. These same principles can be modified and applied to complex precipitation-strengthened alloys such as the iron-, cobalt-, and nickel-base superalloys and the stainless steels. Since these complex alloys contain carbides and other phases that normally precipitate before the U-type phases, the nature and amount of the precipitated phases must be calculated first. The following general formula is then applied to the residual matrix composition of the alloy: element. The magnitude of the resulting number is indicative of whether the alloy will form a a -type phase. When these calculations (which are computerized) are systematically applied to alloys of knoun phase analysis, a breakoff in average electron-vacancy number is noted between U-free and U-prone alloys. Alloys with an average electron-vacancy number higher than the breakoff form a-type phases, while those with lower ones do not form these phases. This method could then be used to eliminate from consideration all experimental compositions that would precipitate undesirable phases. It also is useful in evaluating analyzed heats of alloys where minor heat-to-heat variations determine whether the alloy is o-free or o-prone. THE highly significant development of strong, ductile superalloys to provide reliable construction materials in the 1000" to 2500° F temperature range has been due principally to unremitting application of Edisonian techniques and logic by the dedicated physical metallurgists who have shouldered this responsibility. Tools such as the electron microscope, phase analysis, and computers to accomplish regression analyses have been used heavily, but the effort has been essentially practice of an art, rather than a science. The objective of this paper is to describe and illustrate application of some relatively fundamental principles to certain of these alloy systems in an attempt to remove some of the empiricism from the technology. Specifically, the work presented here deals with the use of periodic-group relationships to predict the formation of intermetallic phases which can occur in primarily austenitic (fcc) structures. Calculations that have been developed might be applied in the design of new alloys and the evaluation of known alloys, and thus have the potential of eliminating vast areas of unnecessary alloy preparation and evaluation. ALLOYING CONCEPTS AND STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF SUPERALLOYS Strength is produced in austenitic superalloys by three principle mechanisms: 1) precipitation of y'; 2) formation of carbides; 3) solid-solution hardening by soluble refractory metals. The first mechanism requires the addition of aluminum and titanium, the second requires carbon and carbide-forming elements, while the third calls for the addition of molybdenum and/or tungsten. A considerable concentration of chromium is usually maintained to resist oxidation/corrosion, but it is also an important carbide-forming element. Fig. 1 shows a sketch and electron micrograph of the structure of a typical wrought nickel-base super-

Jan 1, 1967

By David W. Brunton

FROM the old-fashioned " grab-sample " to the modern timing- . device, which takes a machine-sample with mathematical precision, there is a wide gap which was only crossed' by many years of toil and unremitting endeavor. Even to-day, notwithstanding the advancement in the art, "grab-sampling" is still practiced-sometimes to afford the unscrupulous mine-promoter a basis for fairy-tales with which to entrap the too-gullible investor, and often by milling and smelting companies to determine the amount of moisture in custom-ores. The latter practice is almost as reprehensible as the former, and it causes more trouble and ill-feeling between seller and buyer than all other factors put together. No reputable concern to-day would think of attempting to determine by grab-sampling the amount of gold, silver, lead, or copper contained in an ore, and yet many buyers expect the miner to accept the results of grab-sampling in the determination of the amount of water contained in the ore, forgetting that accurate results are just as necessary here as in the determination of the metals, because the result determines the percentage of weight of the ore which shall be excluded and considered to have no value whatever. Samples for the determination of moisture should be taken with as great care as samples for the determination of. metallic content, and in order to avoid the extra expense of a separate operation moisture-samples should be taken from the sample-safe. As the sample reaches the sample-bin in a smaller stream and by a more circuitous route than the "reject" travels in its path to the outgoing car, it loses more moisture en route, and a constant should be added to compensate for this difference. Carefully-conducted experiments have shown that the difference in loss of moisture between the two routes does not exceed 10 per cent. in summer and 7 per cent.. in winter. For instance,

Aug 1, 1909

Jan 1, 1967

By R. A. Perry

DURING 1943, supplies of lead, like those of most base metals, moved from a position of scarcity to one of ample supply for all possible war requirements. The principal worry in the market, as 1944 began, was that surplus stocks might increase too rapidly to maintain price stability. The problem of postwar stockpiling had definitely entered the picture. The end of the year finds the lead industry having met all use demands, but not without depleting stocks to a critical low in spite of heavy importations. The principal reason for this dangerously reduced stock position is lack of adequate man power, which, without question, has become the lead industry's number one problem. This condition became obvious about the middle of the year, after Selective Service placed in effect orders that no deferments would be given employees under 26 years of age, and to a complacent attitude toward the industry assumed by the War Manpower Commission. It has become progressively worse since then. The WPB continued its policy, started during 1943, of easing restrictions on materials to be used for maintenance, repairs, and operating supplies. The policy of premium payments established by the Metals Reserve Co. was continued and, in spite of expressions to the contrary, has proved quite satisfactory. In short, the Government continued its program of stimulating the lead industry in practically all

Jan 1, 1945

By R. C. FLEMING

G OLD MINING is enjoying a real revival in the West, and a considerable portion of the production is coming from small properties. The large mining companies of the world get most of the publicity, but in the last year the small gold property has often proved a more attractive field for the mining engineer looking for something to do. Old mines have been re- opened, prospects have been more closely examined, and many properties that were out of the running with the high commodity and labor costs of two or three years ago, have recently been making money for their operators. An interesting phase of this activity is the operation of so-called one-man mines. The west is dotted with these small properties, without the resources or reserves to warrant large-scale operation, but which return a living and often something over to one or two men who under- stand mining and simple methods of treatment.

Jan 1, 1932

By Oliver Bowles

PRICES of quartz sold in the United States in 1938 ranged from $1.15 to $36,000 a ton. This startling variation was due simply to the differences between glass sand and rock - crystal, materials that are virtually the same in composition. It illustrates the complexities in qualities, uses, and values of industrial minerals. It is generally stated that mineral deposits are exhaustible resources which can never be replaced when depleted. This statement is no longer true with respect to certain industrial minerals now recovered in increasing quantities from that most inexhaustible of all sources of supply, the ocean. Salt has long been obtained from sea water, particularly on the Pacific Coast, and reference was made a year ago to the large bromine recovery plant at Wilmington, N. C. Now the Westvaco Chlorine Products Corp. is operating a large plant at Newark, Calif., having a capacity sufficient to recover daily from the ocean raw materials that will produce 60 tons of various magnesium products. Lime is used to precipitate the magnesia from salt-water bittern. The products are chiefly magnesium carbonate for chemical uses, periclase and other refractories, and oxychloride cement for flooring.

Jan 1, 1939

CONTENTS [The Nature of Strain Markings in Alpha Brass (paper by J. E. BURKE and C. S. BARRETT, Met. Tech. Feb. 1948. TP 2327). ......................... 2 X Ray Studies of Twinning and Untwinning in Magnesium Alloys (paper by J. B. HESS and R. L. DIETRICH, Met. Tech. Feb. 1948. TP 2328) ................ 11 ]

Jan 1, 1948

By Raymond B. Ladoo

NONMETALLIC minerals (excluding fuels) arid their primary products produced annual in the United States have a value in excess of one billion dollars, or more than that of the metals, yet the lack of expert knowledge of some of the fundamental technical and economic aspects of this most important and complicated business is astonishing. This paper will deal with the economics of this non- metallic mineral field-the business of making money from producing these minerals. The incentive behind all business activity in a capitalistic economy is to make money-to plan so that each dollar invested in property, plant, equipment, services, and so on will return more than a dollar plus simple interest. Of course, business has social, civic, and national duties and responsibilities, but the fulfillment of these is largely dependent upon financial success.

Jan 1, 1939

By James T. Gow, Oscar E. Harder, Anton de S. Brasunas

THIS paper deals with the results obtained and the techniques employed in determining: I. Liquidus and solidus temperatures of the HH and HT type heat-resistant alloys. † 2. The relation of true temperatures (thermocouple) to apparent temperatures (optical pyrometer) for the molten HH and HT type alloys. This work was the outgrowth of needing to know something definite about these temperatures in order to study the effect of pouring temperatures, shake-out times, and heat-treatments on the properties of some heat-resistant alloys. The information developed is thought to be of interest to industry for guidance in foundry practices and the industrial heat applications of the alloys. This paper is based upon work that has been done for the Alloy Casting Institute at Battelle Memorial Institute. LIQUIDUS AND SOLIDUS TEMPERATURES OF HH AND HT TYPE ALLOYS Experimental Procedures Temperature-time curves were obtained during the cooling and solidification of several HH and HT type alloys. The metal was melted in an Ajax high-frequency induction furnace and poured into a coresand mold for cooling. The temperature measurements were obtained by means of a platinum, platinumrhodium thermocouple contained within a fused silica sheath, which was extended through the side wall of the dry core-sand mold to a point at about the center of the mold cavity, which was 3 in. in diameter by 5 in. deep. The cold junction of the thermocouple was kept in an ice bottle, and the temperature was recorded automatically on a direct-reading potentiometer recorder. Through a switching arrangement, the temperature recorded was checked occasionally with a portable Leeds and Northrup potentiometer indicator. Less than a 5°F. variation in the two instruments was always found. This is within the limit of accuracy of readings. The thermocouple used was checked for accuracy against a standard couple, both before use on this work and after completion of the work, by the instrument laboratory. Temperature-time Cooling Curves Fig. I is an enlarged reproduction of a part of one of the cooling curves over the temperature range of 2600° to 2200°F. for an alloy of the HT type with 0.45 per cent carbon, 16 per cent chromium, and 36 per cent nickel. This is a typically shaped cooling curve as obtained for the alloys. It will be noted that two temperatures are shown on Fig. r for the liquidus temperature. It is thought likely that the higher temperature, A, at the point at

Jan 1, 1945

By M. L. Fuller

OWING to the nature of the die-casting process, freshly cast alloys are undoubtedly not at equilibrium from the standpoint of alloy phase relationships. After casting, therefore, they tend to undergo phase changes, with the ultimate effect of reaching a state of equilibrium at the aging temperature, beyond which no further change takes place. This phase alteration undoubtedly is one of the primary causes of the changes in dimensions and physical properties that zinc-alloy die castings undergo during aging. It is planned to report on this problem in a series of papers of which this is the first. The writers have made a study of commercial zinc die-casting alloys over a period of several years, utilizing the X-ray diffraction technic of determining the phase composition changes in the alloys. Up to the present, two principal phase changes have been observed which are capable of causing dimensional changes: (1) the segregation of secondary constituents from the zinc-base solid solution and (2) the beta aluminum-zinc decomposition. The latter is the subject of the present paper and studies on the former will be reported upon at a future time.

Jan 1, 1934

Jan 1, 1916

By Frank W. Harris

The strength of hard drawn copper wire is a question of considerable importance to both manufacturer and consumer. Unlike steel and alloy wires, in which strength is governed by both chcniical and physical considerations, t,he high conductivity required for copper wire in the clcc-trical industry generally precludes the possibility of obt,aining tensile strength through the use of alloys. Consequently, this strenglh is largely a rnatter of the ~hysical structure, and all factors known to affect this structure, such as rolling temperature, die contours, lubricants, drawing speeds, etc., arc matters of prime importance. The experiments described here have becn carried out dl~ring the past year at the Baltimore plant of the American Smelting & Refining Co., in connection with a general investigat,ion of sorne of the questions mentioned above, with the object of studying thc physical ~t~ructure of hard drawn copper wire and the influence of ccrtain factors on t,hat st'ruct.ure. The work has been of an exploratory nature, rather than con~prehensivc., but it was thought that the result,s might prove of sr~fficient general interest tjo warrant their publicatlion. The bulk of the hard drawn coppcr wire used in places where strength is an important factor is rnanufacturcd to strict specification, based USU-ally in the United States on thab of t,he Arrlerican Society for Tcst'ing Materials (B-1-23). This specification calls for almost as high a, valuc of t,ensilc strength, consistent with elongation, as it is possible pract'icnlly to obtain, and only physically perfect mlaterial can be relied on to lliect such a specification. Obvious defects, such as laminat'ions protluc:etl through fins in bhe original rods or brittleness duo lo ovt~rdrawing, arc. usually recognized and need only passing refercncc. Laminatlions can be detected by twisting and untwisting the wircx several times; they will show up on the surface in the form of fins. Pig. 1 shows a very bad example of this defect. Thc wire may bc perfectly smooth before twisting hut, when such larrlinations arc3 prcstmt they will readily show up under this treatrncnt. This trouble is caliscd by sirriilar defects in the original rod produced by overfills in rolling. Fig. 2 shows the cross-section of the rod from which thc wire in Fig. 1 was drawn.

By Lloyd R. Jackson

IN the past 15 years there has been a great deal of interest in the fundamentals of plastic flow and rupture in metals and a number of papers have presented substantial advances toward a fundamental insight into the mechanism of these two processes. This paper is an appraisal of the present position with respect to the following: I. The relative importance of shear and hydrostatic stresses in controlling the plastic flow of metals. 2. The relative importance of shear and hydrostatic stresses in determining the amount of flow before rupture in metals. 3. The use of generalid strains in determining the effect of plastic flow on the work-hardening of metals. FUNDAMENTALS INVOLVED IN PLASTIC FLOW In attempting to devise a quantitative description of plastic flow in metals, it has been customary to assume that metals are homogeneous and isotropic. The fact that neither of these assumptions is correct complicates the experimental appraisal of relations developed. Never- the less, as will be shown, metals are close enough to being isotropic and homogeneous so that considerable insight into the mechanism of plastic flow can be obtained. The assumptions of .isotropy and homogeneity allow both the elastic and plastic behavior of metals to be described in terms of 12 variables-six being stress variables, and six being strain variables. ) From this viewpoint, it should be possible to represent the stress-strain relations in the plastic range for metals by a surface in 12 dimensions. One boundary of this surface would be the surface of transition from elastic to plastic behavior; the other would be the surface of rupture. These two surfaces would be joined by the surface of plastic flow. The shape of this composite surface would depend on the test temperature and speed of straining. This paper is concerned only with results obtained at constant temperature and constant speed of straining. While such a representation is conceivable, the demonstration of such a surface would present almost insurmountable obstacles. The most fruitful simplification of this concept has been the recognition that the behavior of metals in the plastic region is primarily a result of shear stresses and strains. Based on this viewpoint, it is possible to utilize stress and strain invariants that are independent of hydrostatic components to define an effective stress and strain. In effect, this amounts to reducing the task of representing stresses and strains in 12 dimensions to one of representation in two dimensions. The two invariants (one for stresses . and one for strains) that have received most attention are the following: [ ]

Jan 1, 1946

Book Review MANAGEMENT AND MEN. By Meyer Bloomfield, Boston. The Century Co., New York, 1919, pp. 584, H.X. 5 1/2. $3.50. This hook is an exposition of English efforts to solve the problem of labor unrest in England. The first six chapters are reprinted from articles published in the Satur-day Evening Post, for whom the author went to England to study the problem at first hand. These articles deal with housing, increased production, eliminating the internal friction in the industrial machine and a chapter each devoted to the view-point of employer and employee. These chapters are written in the easily readable magazine style and give a complete general survey of the particular solution being tried. Perhaps their greatest., certainly not their least, worth lies in the fact that they form a vehicle for unusually voluminous appendices containing in full the famous Whitley Reports which are the basis of the new movement, together with various reports, which, except for this publication, would be largely inaccessible to those inter-ested in this country. The Whitley scheme considers each industry a unit and proposes to establish therein a Joint Standing Industrial Council composed of representatives of employers and employees to consider appropriate matters affecting the industry at large. There is to be a District Council for each industry which will, as its name implies, deal with the clatters pertaining to that interest in. the particular district. The third and last body in this scheme of Industrial Parliament is the Works Committee, which is com-posed of representatives of the management and of the workers employed in particu-lar plants or mines to act in close cooperation With the district quid national machinery. The Whitley or similar schemes have been tried in many communities in England and the book contains interesting comments on the result obtained, it being notable that most of the objections conic from plants which have not tried the scheme. Meyer Bloomfield, the author; is the specialist in industrial personnel problems who organized the industrial service activities of the United States Shipping Board, Emergency Fleet Corporation. P. E. B.

Jan 10, 1919

By Charles H. Fulton

There are comparatively few accurate data on the melting-or the freezing-point temperature of metallurgical slags, or on related physical phenomena, such as fluidity near the melting-point, specific heat, latent heat, etc. With the exception of the work of H. 0. Hofman,' and some older work by R. Akerman, P. Gredt, and H. M. Howe, no information is available that is of direct interest to the metallurgist. Hofman's valuable work is the only one that refers to slags produced in the metallurgy of copper and lead. The classic work of J. H. L. Vogt,2 who views slags from the standpoint of physical mixtures (solutions in which the entities are minerals), has opened up a new field in the study of slags, and has placed the investigation of such properties as melting-temperatures, etc., on a rational basis. The recent work of A. L. Day, E. T. Allen, and W. I?. White, of the Carnegie Institution, at Washington, and of European investigators3 on certain systems of silicate minerals confirms the value of the investigation of silicate series from this standpoint, and it is my aim to apply this method to metallurgical slags, in order to gain exact data of value in metallurgy. The work recorded in the present paper is the result of an investigation of reverberatory-furnace slags made for a Western smelting company to determine exactly the influence of change in composition, within comparatively narrow limits, on the melting-point. For a general discussion concerning the mineralogical character of slags and the principles on which this investigation is based, reference should be made to other work: for the subject is too large to be stated in this paper, except very briefly in the following outline:

Jan 1, 1913

By R. J. Arsenault

The yield drop that occurs in tantalum, Cu-AZ. and Ag-Al was investigated as a function of strain rate and at several temperatures. From the strain-rate dependence of the yield drop an activation volume was calculated and found to agree with that obtained from differential strain-mte tests. The temperature dependence of the yield drop can he explained in terms of the parameter temperature divided by activation volume. The yield drop is attributed to the rapid multiplication of dislocations during their motion. THE yield-point or yield-drop (upper yield stress minus the lower yield stress) phenomenon has been the subject of numerous investigations1-9 in both bcc and fcc metals. Also, there is no dearth of theoretical explanations10-20 to account for the yield-point phenomenon. The present explanations can be divided into two categories: the concept of dislocation locking and subsequent unlocking and the concept of multiplication of dislocations due to their motion. The Vottrell10,11mechanism of locking and unlocking, as applied to bcc metals, is the best known of the three proposed locking mechanisms. The two additional mechanisms, short-range order (SRO)7,16,17 and Suzuki-type locking,14,15 have been employed to account for the existence of yield points in fcc metals. The experimental evidence supporting the locking of dislocations, especially in bcc metals, is well-established. The dependence of the yield point on interstitial concentrations,' the kinetics of strain aging,2 and the observations by electron-transmission microscopy18 are some of these experimental results. The number of experimental observations supporting dislocation locking in fcc metals is not as extensive as in bcc metals. The unlocking of dislocations, which actually is supposed to account for the yield drop, is by no means well-established by experimental results for either bcc or fcc metals. The similar temperature dependence6 of the yielding and plastic flow is one of the experimental factors that cannot be explained in terms of the unlocking of dislocations. The mechanism based on the rapid multiplication of dislocations has been proposed by several investigators. 18-20 Johnston and Gilman19 have proposed a detailed model of yielding, which was later employed by Hahn21 to predict quantitatively the yield drop in iron. This mechanism was discussed in a previous paper22 and several limitations were pointed out. In the same paper it was shown that an activation volume could be obtained from the strain-rate dependence of the yield drop and that a correlation existed between the activation volumes obtained from the yield-drop tests and from differen-

Jan 1, 1964