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By Sam Warren, Antonio Marinucci, Genesis Z. Figueroa, Anne Lemnitzer

Drilled Displacement Piles (DDP) provide an ideal deep foundation solution that combines the benefits of ground improvement with traditional advantages of piling systems. This paper consolidates data from 20 construction projects in which more than 30 DDPs were installed and tested axially. High quality site exploration data (e.g., Cone Penetration Test and Standard Penetration Test) were evaluated to derive geotechnical analysis parameters. The test sites consisted of mostly mixed soil types with strongly stratified layers of sand, silt, and clay. Pile diameters ranged between 40 cm and 61 cm. Test results were compared with predictive methods developed specifically for DDPs as well as methods used in general geotechnical practice. The accuracy of the empirical methods is presented in terms of total pile capacity, pile length/diameter, and soil type. The large majority of all examined methods underpredict the in-situ pile capacities. It was also found that the difference between the tested and predicted capacity is strongly related to the level of improvement in the surrounding soil due to the piles’ installation. A general comparison between predictive axial accuracy and the observed level of ground improvement upon installation is also discussed.

May 1, 2022

By Sushant Upadhyaya, Deniz Karadeniz, Ahmed Mohamed

Soil setup analysis provides opportunities for efficiencies in pile foundation design and installation. Soil setup gain with time was evaluated as part of the foundation design and installation for twelve bridges along the Interstate 64 corridor between York County and Newport News in Virginia. The substructure elements of the bridges consist of driven precast prestressed concrete piles or H-piles. This case study describes lessons learned to understand the soil setup phenomenon during the installation of the piles in coastal plain. We were able to make expedited decisions during construction by analyzing previously performed pile dynamic analyzer (PDA) test results within the project alignment. Data evaluation included analyses of PDA data obtained from initial driving and restrike after a few hours to 5 weeks. The test data showed pile resistance increase up to twice in most cases and as high as four times in some cases. Foundation design and acceptance based on soil setup can provide opportunities for cost savings and advanced scheduling during construction.

By Alan D. Fisher

Amtrak made a decision to replace an aging bascule bridge with a vertical lift bridge for their crossing of the Thames River in New London, Connecticut. The new lift bridge occupies the same alignment and shares the same foundations as the bascule span. During construction the deep foundation caisson supporting the bascule span settled and tilted. Investigation into possible reasons revealed interesting historical facts, both of the construction of the innovative open well caisson foundations and of the state-of-the-art in tremie concrete placing methods in use at the turn of the century. This paper describes both of these topics.

Jan 1, 2013

By Raymond Henn

Yes we have also used some however, again because of the nature of the maintenance window where we have that two hour (at best) window every night and due to the numerous other crews that are wanting to get in to do the other types of maintenance activities, we don't know if we are going to be getting into that same area from one night to the next. So even with the dormancy additives that one can add to cementitious grouts (that are good up to 72 hours) we don't know if we are going to get back in to the same locations from one week to the next. That's why I use the term "the forgiving nature of the acrylamide". It allows us to ream out the hole allowing us to use the exact same hole without having to re-drill a new hole. The program started in 1997 and we have a budget between labor/materials and equipment of 4.5 million dollars on a year to year basis. For the next few years that is going to come down drastically because the program is going to be more of an ongoing maintenance program. The program started in 1997 and we have a budget between labor/materials and equipment of 4.5 million dollars on a year to year basis. For the next few years that is going to come down drastically because the program is going to be more of an ongoing maintenance program. Up to the end of 2001 we were just over 1.7 million liters of between AV100 and AV118 grout. Of that, approximately just under 200,000 was AV100 and the remaining balance was AV118.

Feb 10, 2003

By Xiaocen Lu, Guowei Li, Jiantao Wu, Thang N. Nguyen, Andrew C. Amenuvor

"This paper investigates the effect of driving a group of 52 open-ended Prestressed High Strength Concrete (PHC) piles on an existing highway embankment based on field measurements of excess pore pressure and lateral soil displacement. Excess pore pressure due to pile driving increased with depth and decreased with increasing distance from the pile, influencing a distance of 43 pile diameters. For pile groups, the rate of dissipation of excess pore pressure decreased with increasing depth and averaged 79% in 20 days, during which maximum ultimate bearing capacity was not yet attained. Lateral soil displacement continued to increase for a period of time after the end of pile driving and this could have resulted in significant inclination of piles if pile installation was too quick and pile spacing was too small. Lateral soil displacement due to pile group decreased with decreasing distance to the existing embankment as a result of high soil density produced by the embankment loading. The results also indicate that the effect of pile group installation on the existing embankment is negligible.INTRODUCTIONPile driving can cause excessive lateral displacement of soil and heaving of the ground surface, which may adversely affect nearby structures. In addition, lateral deformation and excess pore water pressure resulting from pile driving can exert lateral pressures and vertical forces on the piles, and impact negatively on the project and its surroundings. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the influence of pile driving on the nearby structures as well as the project itself when expansion works are carried out.Recent years have seen some development in the application of field tests for studying soil disturbance due to piles, and these tests usually involves pore water pressure and lateral soil displacement monitoring during pile driving. Results of field experiments performed by Reese and Seed (1957) in San Francisco Bay Mud with instrumented piles showed that pile installation generated large pore water pressures at the pile surface, with only slight increase at a distance of 15 pile diameters away. The measurements indicated that the increase in pore water pressures can exceed the initial total overburden pressure. Holtz and Lowitz (1965) reported a decrease in undrained shear strength immediately after pile installation, which was largely recovered after full pore pressure dissipation for field measurements within 1.5–2 pile diameters from the pile surface. Hwang et al. (2001) presented results of large scale pile driving tests where maximum excess pore water pressure generated decreased rapidly with increasing distance from pile. The excess pore water pressure became negligible at 15 pile diameters from the pile. Their results also showed that lateral displacement of the ground decreased with increasing distance from the pile. Pestana et al. (2002) carried out full-scale closed ended pile tests in the Young Bay Mud deposit. Higher excess pore pressures were observed for points closer to the pile, which decreased with increasing distance from the pile wall. Exponential decay of excess pore pressure with time was also noted. An 80% dissipation of excess pore pressure was achieved for soils more than one pile diameter away from the pile wall between 50 to 80 days. Lateral deformation generally decreased with increasing distance from pile wall, whilst varying erratically with depth. Bozozuk et al. (1978) reported on soil disturbance due to driving of 116 concrete piles in sensitive marine clays in a construction project. Maximum pore water pressures after pile driving within the group, and 6m (20 pile diameters) from the group were over 35-40% of the total overburden pressures, and the influence of pile driving on pore water pressure at 20m away from the group was very small. Cooke and Price (1973) studied a 168-mm-diameter instrumented pile jacked into over consolidated London clay. Outward lateral displacements ranging"

Jan 1, 2016

By Dan Brown

Improvements in construction equipment and techniques in recent years have made possible the use of drilled shaft foundations in diameters and lengths not previously considered practical or feasible. Many highway bridge and other structures are now routinely founded on drilled shafts which are 8 to 12 feet in diameter and extending over 200 feet in depth below grade. There are unique challenges associated with constructing such large and deep cast-in-place foundations and engineers should be aware of the special needs associated with site investigation, construction specifications, material requirements, and quality assurance. This paper outlines a number of special considerations for these foundations, along with strategies that may be employed to improve the reliability and quality of large drilled shaft foundations.

Jan 1, 2013

By O. Craciun, C. A. Bridges, M. Cai, J. Sugawara

There are a number of methods that can be adopted for predicting the ultimate lateral resistance of a free-head rigid pile, from the conventional Brinch Hansen and Broms solutions to three-dimensional finite element analyses. Often these methods give rise to significantly different pile ultimate lateral capacities which could lead to either unsafe or too conservative designs. It is also well known that finding a rigorous and practical solution is challenging due to the complex three dimensional and nonlinear soil-structure interaction. This paper reviews some of the most common methods and produces results of pile ultimate lateral capacities embedded in cohesive or cohesionless soils. Subsequently, a finite element analysis is performed using PLAXIS 3D modelling under the same design conditions. Based on comparison of results, limitations and advantages are highlighted, and the most suitable method is proposed from a practical point of view.

Nov 1, 2022

By A. C. Ackenhell

The geologic environment of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania is both inviting and challenging to drilled pier installation. The shales and clayey soil zone of the hills are favorable but the alluvial soils of the three major rivers create problems. Beginning in the early 1950's, drilled pier installation continually improved as methods were developed to meet the geologic challenge. Case histories are presented to illustrate the historical development of piers in Pittsburgh. Recent innovations reducing the groundwater problem are illustrated by a case history of a high rise building construction. Load test information for side wall shear on the cylindrical shaft area between the concrete and bedrock continues to be desired but remains generally uneconomical.

Jan 1, 2010

By Larry Rayburn

Augercast piles evolved in the late forties from the process of pressure grouting open holes backfilled with stone. In 1956, a patent was issued for a cast in situ pile by pumping high pressure grout through hollow-stem, continuous flight auger as the auger is gradually withdrawn from the ground. The patent rights expired in 1973 and the use of auger-cast piles greatly expanded with most large deep foundation contractors now installing augercast piles. At one time augercast piles had a bad reputation, partly because of not having a blow count to give some engineers a confidence factor and there were some quality issues. Over the years the quality issues have been eliminated and I am sure the augercast is the most installed pile in private industry and is now being used by some State Agencies.

Jan 1, 2005

By Patrick van der Schaaf

"During 2016, foundation piling works were completed to allow for the construction of a production and storage/handling terminal in Rotterdam. It is there that steel foundations will be produced for offshore wind farms and the oil and gas industry. Several Dutch contracting companies were involved in constructing: foundations for an assembly hall, a barge quay and a deep-sea quay wall. For the hall foundations, cast in situ concrete vibro piles were created. Open ended steel casing piles were also installed due to very high cone resistances which made it impossible to perform cast in situ piles in certain areas. The quay wall was constructed with open ended steel casing piles in combination with sheet piles. A deep-sea quay wall was also constructed to provide enough storage area for the offshore mono piles. This project was unique and challenging due to the use of different foundation technologies in challenging circumstances and soil conditions. This paper will give an insight into the Dutch use of varying foundation piling techniques for deep-sea quay wall constructions. It can be concluded that even experienced local contractors can be surprised by variations in soil conditions. It will also show how the contractors adapted to the difficult circumstances.PROJECT OUTLINEThe project consisted of a barge quay near the assembly hall with a length of 500 metres, width of 42 metres and a height of 35 metres, and a deep-sea quay wall 480 metres in length. This paper concentrates on the foundation works for the construction of the deep-sea quay wall. The construction of the deep-sea quay wall consisted of a combination of open ended steel casing piles with a diameter of Ø 1420 mm and a wall thickness varying between 21 and 23 mm. The lengths of the steel casing piles varied between 32 and 37 metres. Between the steel casing piles triple PU 28 sheet piles were installed with lengths varying between 26 and 29 metres. In the Netherlands, a combination of open ended steel piles and sheet piles is known as a “combi wall”. For the deep-sea quay wall a steel combi wall was shored with steel H- section profiles that were driven in a raked position whilst being injected with grout, so called MV-piles. The MV piles for this project consisted of steel HEB 600 sections with lengths from 52 up to 59 metres and were installed with angles varying between 42.5 and 47.5 degrees. For a detailed overview regarding the project specifications reference is made to table 1 which is presented below."

Jan 1, 1900

By Renato P. Cunha

The paper explores a parametric analysis of a four-pile group in contact (hence piled raft) and without contact (hence standard pile group) with the superficial soil layer, under a combined set of loadings (moment M, vertical V and horizontal H forces). The major design parameters of interest, as total and differential settlements, and raft bending moments and shear stresses are assessed under aforementioned distinct conditions. The slenderness ratio of the piles is also varied along the analyses, allowing the establishment of its influence on the derived parameters.

Jan 1, 2006

By Raymond J. Poletto

This paper describes the special problems that occur with the construction of diaphragm walls and discusses the lessons learned during the repairs of structural walls. Although diaphragm or slurry wall technology and equipment has vastly improved since its development in the late 1950?s, significant problems still occur. Key issues are repairs related to panel joints between wall panels, concrete defects associated with tremie concrete problems, leaks and other defects at tieback reservations or inserts, wall leaks within the plane of the wall and surface repairs. The paper supports the position that diaphragm walls are relatively watertight when properly constructed, but cautions that it is necessary to address potential problems in the design stage and allow for flexibility in construction so that the problems that occur can be corrected once encountered. Due to the fast track nature of most projects the time available for design, detailing and construction is limited. As a result, insufficient attention to detail by any of the responsible parties can lead to imperfections and defects in the wall. The authors describe the nature of these problems and their potential resolution based on ?lessons learned.? The timely response to wall problems is essential to the successful completion of a diaphragm wall project. Appropriate repairs have resulted in largely successful jobs starting with the World Trade Center in New York City. The authors? total 80 years of experience as the engineer of record and designer, inspector and contractor?s representative for the diaphragm wall results in a unique insight to deal with these problems.

Jan 1, 2011

Jan 1, 2003

By Bartho J. Admiraal, Antoine Feddema

Pneumatic sinking of caissons has been established from mid-19th century. The technique of pneumatic sinking has been applied on many projects for underground construction up to depths over 20m below groundwater level since that time. Volker Staal en Funderingen, a known deep foundation contractor in the Netherlands, was awarded two contracts in 2015 for sinking in total 2 caissons in Hamburg (Germany) to large depths (over 30 m (100 ft) and two projects near Amsterdam (the Netherlands). The latter concerned two gate chambers for the world’s largest sea-lock, one of them was 55x81 m2 (180x266 ft) to a depth of 25.5 m (84 ft), which would mean a world record for pneumatic sinking! But with depths and dimensions like these, the deployment of personnel is the main limiting factor for production, despite all developments to date. It was decided to develop a remote controlled process, including the necessary equipment and monitoring systems. Monitoring not only the kinematics of the equipment in the working chamber and the production parameters related to the excavation but also of the structural behaviour of the sea-lock gate chambers was essential for approval of this innovative execution method. The lay-out and the sizes of the largest caisson the structural integrity was extremely critical for torsion and bending moments. A displacement controlled execution by the observational method was therefore required. In engineering a new approach for modelling the semi-continuous failure mechanisms of the soil was needed to understand the sensitivity of the excavation process and to define limit values for the execution. In the paper these structural and geotechnical issues will be explained together with the experiences during the execution.

May 1, 2022

By Tim Chapman

This general report considers what promoters of deep basement projects want from their teams and whether they get it often enough. Most large projects are based on complex financial models where the funding is related to a future income stream. Project delays and cost over-runs can critically affect the financial model. Too often, delays and cost over-runs originate in the substructure and foundations. We must take positive steps to improve our industry's reputation for reliability.

Jan 1, 2006

By Fabio Santillan, Michael F. Zoccola

"Wolf Creek Dam and Lake Cum berland in Russell County Kentucky is operated by the United States Army Corps of Engineers (USAGE) Nashville District It is a combination 3,940 ft long (1,200 m) non-zoned clay embankment, a maximum of 215 ft (65.5 m) above top of rock and 1,796 ft long (547 m) concrete gravity section. Built in the 1940s, the limestone beneath the embankment is characterized by an extensive interconnected network of solution feature; varying from fist size to largecaves.In 2005, studies conducted by the Nashville Distrect concluded that a new seepage cut-off wall was needed as the existing cut-off wall, installed in the 1970s, did not go deep enough and did not extend laterally far enough to intercept all major karst features The dam was classified as a ""Dam Safety Action Classification I (DSAC 1) – Urgent and Compelling,"" the highest risk under USAGE risk category rankings. Also in 2005, under a USAGE risk screening program of its entire dam portfolio, Wolf Creek was classified as a Dam Safety Action Classification 1-Urgent and Compelling, which put it in the highest category. In 2007, an Independent External Peer Review from outside USAGE, concluded there was compelling evidence that a piping failure mode had re-initiated and was in an ""advanced continuation"" stage of development.Impounding approximately 6 million acre-ft (7.4x102m3) of water at flood storage, Lake Cumberland is the largest reservoir east of the Mississippi River and ninth largest in the United States. Catastrophic failure would result in widespread flooding, Ices of life and economic losses in billions of dollars.In 2008, the Nashville District partnered with a joint venture between finns Treviicos and Soletanche (ISM through a ""Best Value"" contract to construct a new seepage barrier wall. This acquisition method was used in lieu of a low bid contract due to complexity of the work and dam safety concerns. It took advantage of the experience and innovation of contractors by soliciting technical proposals that were evaluated independent of cost. Those proposals deemed technically qualified and responsive then underwent a trade-off analysis between ccst and technical approach and a selection was made of the one deemed to give the best combination."

Jan 1, 2013

By James S. Graham

Research at the University of Colorado on southern pine and Douglas-fir piling has determined that the existing building code design stress values of 1200 psi and 1250 psi, as determined by ASTM D-2899, are substantiated; but testing procedures should be revised. All full size piling tests should be standardized at 1/d ratios of 2:1, or confined tests performed. Also, it has been determined that theoretical design values for timber piling should not be based on the lumber criteria of D-245 and D-2555, but instead should follow the pattern set by engineers in the utility industry for timber poles, in accordance with ANSI 05.1.

Jan 1, 1986

By Adrian Gygax, Sarah Gaib, Rod Kostaschuk

The British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure (Ministry) recently completed a slope stabilization project at Ten Mile Slide on Highway 99. The highway is an essential part of the road network connecting the British Columbia (BC) coast with the interior of the province. The landslide was first identified in the mid-1980s and has retrogressed more than 250 m upslope since then, leading to continual and expensive repairs to the highway. The Ministry engaged BGC Engineering Ltd. (BGC) and their structural sub-consultant Gygax Engineering Associates Ltd. (GEA) to develop a stabilization scheme that would halt the slide with an acceptable level of residual risk. The design required careful consideration of construction stages and the stresses induced in the structural components as the slide movement was progressively stopped as construction advanced. Four stabilization design options were shortlisted with the preferred option selected in Fall 2016. The selected solution comprised the construction of five rows of post-tensioned soil anchors upslope of the highway and a tied-back concrete tangent pile retaining wall for the roadway itself as well as reconstruction of the highway alignment, grade and drainage through the slide. Works were installed by top-down construction within defined time allowances stipulated in the contract. Significant engineering was undertaken beyond standard design processes for this complex project, such as comprehensive geotechnical investigations, aerial and terrestrial laser scanning and change detection analyses, pre-production test anchors, detailed geo-structural numerical modelling and due diligence activities to validate and optimize the design. The stabilization works have been very successful with the slide response being as predicted and the highway operating again as full two-lane service.

Oct 1, 2022

By Ali Azizian, Brian Hall

"Driven piles were selected to support the Fraser Heights Bridge bents. Piles were a key component of the top-down construction approach, which was adopted for minimizing potential impacts on an environmentally sensitive wetland. Project requirements mandated verification of pile capacities using dynamic methods. More than 40 Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA) tests were performed. The subsurface conditions were highly variable. On the east side, piles extended through loose sands, soft silts/clays, and two peat layers and were founded in glacial till-like soils at about 45 m depth. However, on the west side, till-like materials were so shallow that it was difficult to drive the piles sufficiently deep to obtain the necessary lateral support. This paper provides an overview of the geotechnical considerations of the bridge design and top-down construction approach, and expands on the presentation of PDA results and how they compared to pile capacity estimation methods and parameters recommended in the applicable design codes.INTRODUCTIONThe Fraser Heights Bridge (FHB) was a component of the Fraser Heights Connector (FHC), a 2 km section of the South Fraser Perimeter Road (SFPR), constructed as part of the Port Mann/Highway 1 (PMH1) Improvement Project. The FHC is located in northeast Surrey BC (Fig. 1).Two major design and construction determinants were: 1) a mandated tight schedule to provide a non-tolled alternative to a new toll bridge; and, 2) an obligation that construction had to occur with minimal impact on the environmentally sensitive wetland the FHB crossed, including limiting the footprint of the permanent and temporary works to less than 45 m2, and prohibiting construction access onto the wetland. Construction equipment was only allowed on the wetland on temporary trestles or on the finished structure. This latter requirement resulted in the bridge being constructed span by span, using a top-down approach."

Jan 1, 2016

By Stefan Larsson, Sadek Baker, Razvan Ignat

"This paper describes the execution of two full-scale field tests where a braced steel sheet pile wall interacting with rows of overlapping dry deep mixing columns was first excavated and then loaded to failure. The aim of the tests is to provide insight of the performance of dry deep mixing column rows located in passive zone and interacting with a retaining structure. The column rows were installed perpendicular to the sheet pile walls with two different area ratios, i.e. different distanced between the column rows. Both tests were extensively instrumented with inclinometers, pore pressure transducers, bellow-hoses, earth pressure gauges and strain gauges mounted on the struts. Results of the performedtests will serve as development of design methods for excavation support with columns.INTRODUCTIONDry deep mixing has been used with good results to strengthen the soil when excavations are to be performed in locations with thick soft clay deposits. An application that has increased in recent years is to install columns on the passive side of the retaining structure. Columns can be installed in different patterns but rows, grids or blocks are the most common arrangement. The use of column type ground improvement installed on the passive side of a retaining structure has been documented for a few field cases, Tanaka (1993), O’Rourke et al. (1997b), O’Rourke and McGinn (2006), Ou et al. (2008). By improving the soil on the passive zone, the passive earth pressure in front of the retaining structure is increased. This has proven to reduce the excavation induced deflections behind the retaining structure, reduce the structural forces (bending moment in the retaining structure, strut and anchor forces) and improve the safety against basal heave failure. The main focus of the conducted measurements within these cases has been on recording deflections and structural forces on the retaining structure and there is very little documentation available of the stress-strain behavior of the improved soil acting on the passive side of the retaining structure.Two full-scale tests of braced steel sheet pile walls interacting with rows of overlapping dry deep mixing columns were first excavated and then loaded to failure was conducted during the spring-summer of 2014. This paper briefly describes the test set up, instrumentation, test procedure and some selected results from one of the conducted tests."

Jan 1, 2015