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The term geochemistry - chcmbtry' of the earth - is almost limitless in its implied subject, but of recent years a major trend of research in this field has been towards economic application in the search for mineral deposits, and in particular for those of some ofthe less common elements for which a demand now exists.Geochemistry is in a state of slow transition from a purely descriptive subject to a fundamental science concerned with the relationships that exist between the distribution of the elements in the earth's crust and the physical characteristics of the atoms of those elements. The progress achieved promises a set of basic principles which will relate the atomic characteristics of an element to the physico-chemical conditions that make for its dispersion or concentration. This means that, given a geological map of an areasufficiently detailed for the physico-chemical conditions existing in past geological eras to be deduced, there is the possibility that the relative distribution throughout that area of any element present, and its likely mode of occurrence, could be predicted from a consideration of its atomic characteristics.Since the atomic characteristics of the elements are becoming increasingly well defined by physical research, the attainment of this ideal of prediction depends upon:(a) the strengthening of geochemical theory; and(b) the development of petrological and mineralogical methods of assessing the conditions of temperature and pressure prevailing in geological formations at various stages in their history.The other prime requirement is a d.etailed geological map - a requirement that is all too often lacking.The fact that there has been very little "geochemical approach" to problems of economic geology in Australia should not be taken to mean that there is little point in trying to develop such an approach here in as active and as rigidly scientific a manner as possible. The degree of success that has attended the attempts so far made, to which reference is made below, suggests the reverse, particularly in view of the relatively slight cost involved if the investigations were properly organised on a centralised basis. There are three aspects of geochemistry that are directly applicable to the search for economic minerals.(a) The classic technique of the prospector can be made more sensitive and reliable by the use of modern equipment coupled with the application of geochemical theory to geological and structural data. The case of the rare alkali elements (see below) is givenhere as an illustration of the way in which the distribution of elements can be predicted from the first principles of geochemistry, thereby replacing the prospector's dependence on his "sixth sense" that enabled him to suggest that a certain area of formation was"favourable" for the occurrence of a certain type of mineral deposit.At its best, this sixth sense amounted to an almost subconscious correlation of all relevant associations and typical occurrences of the particular mineral experienced by the prospector during his...

Jan 1, 1950

The concept of a magnetic hydro-cyclone is undeveloped, possibly because studies by Bragard (1965) and the Royal School of Mines in London (Robinson, 1965) were not encouraging. Its role for the concentration of ironsands is attractive in that the classifying effect within a hydrocyclone may be comparable to the classifying effect in the gravity concentration of ironsands, and thus two steps may be achieved in one. Furthermore it should be a very simple and cheap process. The idea has been explored intermittently since 1976 but more energetically since the offering of a magnetic hydro-cyclone thickener by Boxmag Rapid (1983). This paper summarises the development and test work which are detailed elsewhere (Fricker, 1984).

Jan 1, 1984

An intensely sheared and mineralized zone occurs in the quartz dolerite greenstone (or younger greenstone) mass on the western limb of the Kalgoorlie syncline. This zone comprises the western part of the Golden Mile and has produced the greater part of the 33,000,000 oz of gold produced to date from the main mining belts. A study of the general geological and structural features suggests that the lode shear system will continue southward on a pitch similar to that of the main syncline. Although payable ore has been found recently further to the south, the expectation of large quantities extending southward from the present mining areas is problematical.INTRODUCTIONUntil the late 1930's the principal mining activities in the western lode system were centred on three major ore-shoots formed on the No. 4, No. 3 and to a lesser extent on the No. 2 lode shears (Fig. 1). With the gradual reduction of grade in depth on these main ore shoots, increasing attention was paid to the "Minor Lode" system of lode shears known to exist in the same area. A large quantity of payable ore was found on these "Minor Lodes" particularly in the central part of the mining area. In recent years more attention has been given to exploration in a southerly direction.ROCK TYPES AND STRUCTURESThe western system occurs on the western flank of a dragfolded, south pitching syncline. The rock succession consists of Black Flag sediments overlying the younger greenstone horizon which overlies the fine grained older greenstone horizon. The axis of the syncline is regarded as a tight infold of the overlying Black Flag sediments. This infold has been faulted and intruded by albite porphyry resulting in the formation of a composite body of slates...

Jan 1, 1964

New Zealand China Clays produces a unique halloysite clay product at Matauri Bay, Northland.   The company has licences over four deposits that were derived from the weathering of rhyodacite domes. Clay is mined and processed from two of the four deposits and is refined using a complex process based on gravity separation.   The product is almost entirely exported to niche markets in 24 countries. The main market is the fine ceramic industry where the product is used as a component in the manufacture of high quality porcelain and bone china bodies. The use of halloysite in these bodies gives the manufacturer the ability to achieve high whiteness and translucency. The other major market is for use in technical ceramics, where the product is sought after due to its high purity, fine particle size and stability at high temperatures.

Jan 1, 1997

An optical computing system was used to determine spacings and frequencies in geological fabrics and engineering joint fabrics.Three-dimensional arrays of joints were plotted on an equal-area net. Directions in which true spacings are seen were determined from these plots. Photographs taken along these directions were used for optical computing.

Jan 1, 1970

By Met B

IN the followmg paper an account is given of work performed by the author for the purpose of sampling a slime dam on the leases of the North Mount Farrell Co. N.L., at Tullah, Tasmania, during the summer of 1925-26.For convenience the paper is divided into sections as follows:1. THE MINE2. THE SLIME DAM3. SURVEY OF THE DAM4. BORING OF THE DAM(a) INTRODUCTION(b) 1ST METHOD(c) 2ND METHOD(d) 3RD METHOD(e) 4TH METHOD(f) GENERAL NOTES5. CONCLUSION

Jan 1, 1928

Prominent among the ore minerals at Mt. Ellison, in the Brock's Creek district, Northern Territory, are a number of copper-bismuth sulphides wittichenite, aikinite, emplectite, in association with nativebismuth, chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, sphalerite and linnaeite.Linnaeite and aikinite formed first and were followed by native bismuth. Wittichenite was later and substantially replaces earlier minerals. Replacement of aikinite by wittichenite has produced secondaryor reaction bismuth.INTRODUCTIONThe Brock's Creek district of the Northern Territory lies to the south east of Darwin and has been the locale of intermittent mining of small but rich deposits of diverse ore type. Gold, tin, and copper ores were recovered especially between 1890 and 1910 with minor exploitation up to the present time. Copper ores were of prior importance, the main production coming from supergene enriched deposits of chalcocite.The mines are situated in strongly folded Precambrian strata comprising slates, sandstones, volcanics and amphibolites with replaced haematitic rocks (Sullivan, 1953). The strata in the Brock's Creek area immediately north of the Darwin-Birdum railway line are domed around a roughly circular granitic mass some 5 miles in diameter. The Mount Ellison mine is located near the N.E. margin of the granite in metamorphosed basic country rock.Study of a series of polished sections from Mt. Ellison revealed the presence of linnaeite, chalcopyrite, bornite, aikinite, wittichenite, emplectite, bismuth, sphalerite, and chalcocite. With the exception of sphalerite and emplectite each of these minerals is prominently developed and intimately intergrown with the other constituents.

Jan 1, 1963

By D S. Collins, Z Hosseini, I Pinnock, Y Toya

Microseismic monitoring is regularly used in the mining and geotechnical industries to provide detailed information about rock mass response to operational activities. This paper implements a variable 3D velocity model (VM) at a North American hard rock mine with the aim of further improving the accuracy of seismic event locations. A collapsing method is also used to help analyse two individual seismic event clusters at another North American hard rock mine. In the first case study, the location accuracy of events is shown to improve by moving from a conventional single VM to a variable 3D VM that accounts for voids and different geological domains. The modal average for the event location accuracy improved from 14 m to 5 m when the 3D VM was used. Additionally, the single VM failed to locate 26 per cent of the seismic events that were located by the 3D VM. In the second case study, the distribution of seismic events was further enhanced by using a collapsing method that highlighted planar structures. The collapsing method was performed on two large event sequences that occurred in close proximity and identified different seismic event distributions. One aftershock sequence aligned along a plane, suggesting an activated structure, while the other large event sequence had a more 3D distribution of events, suggesting a complex stress redistribution on smaller structures.CITATION:Pinnock, I, Collins, D S, Toya, Y and Hosseini, Z, 2016. Large event sequence analysis and 3D velocity models for seismic event location accuracy, in Proceedings Seventh International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2016), pp 879–884 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

May 9, 2016

By Vaughan J. P

The Pegmont deposit is a stratiform Pb-Zn sulphide body occurring in a thin, iron-rich metasedimentary unit situated near the top of the Kuridala Formation, a part of the Mary Kathleen Group of the Middle Proterozoic"Eastern Geosyncline" succession of the Mount Isa-Cloncurry district. The deposit appears to have developed in a shallow basin or depression on a sea or lake floor.Detailed chemical and mineralogical study of seven diamond drill cores through the ore horizon shows that in addition to galena and sphalerite the orebody contains a large range of iron-rich silicates and aluminosilicates.Further, five drill cores selected to represent a section from basin centre to basin edge exhibit clear and systematic chemical and mineralogical changes in the ore horizon in both a vertical and, most importantly, ill a lateral sense.Reconstruction of the sedimentary environment of the ore horizon as a whole shows this to be a silicate facies of a phosphatic, manganiferous iron formation or, more accurately, of "ironstone" in the sense of James (1966, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 440, chapter W).On the basis of both mineralogy and chemistry this silicate facies may be subdivided into three microfacies according to the dominant iron silicates characteristic of each: a fayalite microfacies, a hornblende-clinopyroxenemicrofacies, and a garnet microfacies. Significant Pb-Zn sulphide concentrations are confined almost entirely to the fayalite microfacies.

Jan 1, 1979

By L N. Loganathan

Risk exposure in tunnel projects is extremely high due to various factors such as variability of subsurface conditions, selection of inappropriate design and tunnelling methods, improper risk assessment on adjacent surface and subsurface structures and utilities, and inadequate contractual practices. The risks in tunnelling must be borne by the contractor, designer and the owner of a tunnelling project. There have been a number of improvements in the last ten to 15 years in the manner in which tunnel projects are developed and implemented in terms of their design, construction, financing and operations. One significant improvement has been the manner in which underground conditions and their risks are being managed. Owners are less willing to transfer the full responsibility to the contractor for managing the underground conditions, although this is a familiar manner in which underground major urban projects have been previously contracted and managed. The owners of tunnel projects in Singapore have advanced the risk management process for their projects through geotechnical interpretative baseline reports (GIBRs), geotechnical data reports (GDRs) and project specifications (PSs). This paper discusses industry practice and its development as well as the application during the preparation and use in Singapore on the Deep Tunnel Sewerage System (DTSS) and the Marina Coastal Expressway (MCE) project in Singapore. The DTSS trunk sewer is 48 km and ranges from 3.3 m to 6 m finished diameter up to 50 m below the ground. The underground conditions ranged from Old Alluvium, strengths of about 1 MPa to competent Bukit Tima granite, with strengths of over 230 MPa. The total route length of the MCE is about 5 km. About 3.6 km will be constructed underground, consisting of dual five-lane carriageways. The underground construction will be cut-and-cover, and 2.6 km will be constructed about 13 m underground, and 1 km of tunnel will range from 13 m to 24 m as the tunnel passes under a 420 m wide reach of Marina Bay, whose crossing will be constructed as a two-phase cofferdam.

Jan 1, 2008

By N Clarke, G R. Ballantyne, M S. Powell, P Elms, A Anyimadu

AngloGold Ashanti Ltd nominated Sunrise Dam Gold Mine as a case study via their involvement with the long-running Australian Mineral Industry Research Association (AMIRA) International P9P research program (AMIRA, 2015) . A group of researchers from the Global Comminution Collaborative (GCC) conducted a comminution circuit survey and review together with a large group of graduate metallurgists, senior metallurgists and operators. Fundamental and applied research understanding was used to identify productivity and efficiency improvements around the crushing and grinding circuits. The limitations of current scientific knowledge were identified through this process and this will allow future research to be more focussed on what is required by industry.The comminution circuit at Sunrise Dam comprises three stages of crushing followed by two stages of ball milling. The secondary crusher and primary ball mill classification were identified as the primary limitations of the circuit. The secondary crusher was found to be underperforming through overall equipment efficiency (OEE) analysis and an improved chamber design was identified by Chalmers University. This improved design will promote higher power utilisation, choke feeding and a finer crushed product for the milling circuit. The primary ball mill product is classified by a combination of a trommel, 3 sieve bends and a hydrocyclone. The combination of poor classification and coarse, competent feed led to a situation where the primary mill was overfilled with rocks, reducing grinding rate due to cushioning of impact. Size specific energy (SSE) benchmarking methodology was used to identify that a 10% increase in throughput could be achieved with improved primary classification.CITATION:Ballantyne, G R, Clarke, N, Elms, P, Anyimadu, A and Powell, M S, 2015. Application of research principles to identify process improvement at Sunrise Dam Gold Mine, in Proceedings MetPlant 2015, pp 221–229 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Sep 7, 2015

S. R. Carter (Mount Isa Mines Ltd., Mt. Isa): I found many ideas to interest me in Haddon King's paper "Notes on Ore Occurrences in Highly Metamorphosed Precambrian Rocks" (Stillwell Anniversary Volume).At Mount Isa I have not been happy about some of the longstanding appreciations of the geological evidence as fresh data accumulated, and as more and more knowledge has been building up outside Mount Isa in recent years of sedimentary deposition of sulphides.Accordingly, I organized a small section of the Geological Department at Mount Isa at the beginning of 1958 under Senior Geologist, W. J. Murray to reappraise our geological record and investigate old interpretations and new ones that arise. The work is expected to take several years to complete, but it is hoped that sufficient will be done before then to permit the most plausible story on the ore genesis to be chosen. In the meantime, W. J. Murray has proposed, in a Company Report, that the.epigenetic features of the silver,lead-zinc deposits, which are essentially conformable with the shales, could have resulted from remobilized syngenetic deposits.Haddon King, on p. 159; has listed six assumptions that are required by a magmatic-hydrothermal theory of, origin for conformable deposits. It is interesting to consider the Mount Isa silver-lead-zinc deposits in terms of these requirements.My comments are listed in the same order as Haddon King's assumptions:(a) "The source of the constituents is magmatic and they have become available in successive waves of zinc-rich, lead rich, manganese rich, silver rich, etc, instalments in accord...

Jan 1, 1959

The purpose of this paper is to outline some aspects of the experimental worlr that has been carried out in the mineral dressing laboratory at M'ount. Morgan during recent years.The subject matter has been dealt with under the following headings:1. Comminution of various mill products.2. The application of sulphur dioxide as a flotation reagent.3. Heavy-media separation.4. Bulk flotation of sulphide ores.COMMINUTION OF VARIOUS MILL PRODUCTSThe following data were cbtained by processing fractions of reserve grade ore.Granular TailingIn Table 1 are shown the results of tests on material representative of average grade tailing. In the first test (H1 ) the granular tailing was floated as received and in the second test (Ha) the tailing was ground prior to flotation.

Jan 1, 1952

The Heavy Media Separation plant operated at Lidsdale siding, eight miles from Lithgow, by the N.S.W. Mining Co. is a product of the Western Machinery Company, of D.S.A.This mill, designed to use finely ground magnetite as the heavy medium, was prefabricated in America and shipped to Australia for erection.First operated early in December, 1951 it has worked on a two-shift basis since. Designed for an input rate of 330 tons per hour, this mill is capable of washing 4 in. x /u in. coal down to its inherent ash by removing all heavy material, including high-ash coal.The principle is quite simple. A stream of raw coal is fed into the separatory vessel which contains a liquid medium, the density of which is adjusted to produce the desired split between coal and refuse. In this bath the lightest coal floats, and all material heavier than the specific gravity of the medium sinks, and is removed separately. Such a system is,. ideally suited to Western coal, as there is no definite splitting point between coal and refuse. Inherent ash of the coal fed to the plant ranges from 8 to 25%, the corresponding density range being from 1.28 up to 1.8.Generally speaking, the higher the density the higher the ash content of the coal.The density in the separatory vessel (hereafter called the cone) can be quickly and easily adjusted throughout the above range to any desired value. Customer requirements, coupled with the economics of washing, dictate the proper specific gravity to be maintained. At present this is held at 1.52...

Jan 1, 1954

The Zeehan field has yielded over 190 000 tons of lead and 26,000,000 oz of silver. Moh of the production took place between the initial discovery of silver-lead ore in 1882 and 1920, and the greatest part was extracted from fissure lodes in the Proterozoic to (?) lower Cambrian rocks. It is demonstrated that the prosperity of the mines relied upon the silver content, which is apparently highest in these beds, particularly where spilitic rocks are associated with them. In contrast, galena occurring in orebodies emplaced in the Gordon Limestone is low in silver.Most of the workings are relatively shallow due in some cases to enrichment related to erosion surfaces.Fault zones within a complex anticlinal structure exposing the Proterozoic to (?) lower Cambrian formations appear to have been major factors in the control of mineralization.

Jan 1, 1968

Some 50 miles of tunnel have been driven in the Snowy Mountains Area since tunnelling commenced in 1951. Hates have improved progressively due to the know-how of American supervision and use of large matched equipment of modern design.The work has been carried out by contractors, working almost exclusively under schedule of rates contracts. The Authority has maintained active research into tunnelling problems, especially that of support, and this has resulted in considerable economies and improved rates of progress. The contractors also have sought economies both by management and equipment techniques. Ammonium nitrate came into favour as an explosive essentially because of its lower cost, and handling techniques have improved progressively. Rock conditions preclude use of the "Mole" type equipment in its present stage of development, but one contractor introduced the "sliding floor" and this could exert a great influence on future tunnelling methods.Examination of tunnels that have been in service for some time confirmed the quality of the work and endorsed the policy of continued research and development.GENEHALThe Snowy Mountains Scheme provides for the diversion of the Snowy and Eucumbene waters through two transmountain tunnels to the western river systems. These diversions, together with additional regulations provided for waters already flowing inland, will provide an average additional discharge of 1,818,000 ac it per year for irrigation.Furthermore, approximately 6,000 million kWh of electrical energy will be generated annually in power stations with a total installed capacity of some 3,000,000 kW (Fig. 1.).INVESTIGATIONThe aim of investigation work is firstly to collect sufficient information to allow the overall scheme to be planned and then to follow up with detailed information on eachproject. The correct balance for all aspects of this work is a matter for keen judgment, as the tunnels must be planned...

Jan 1, 1963

By Patterson J. H

An infra-red absorption study has been made of crocidolite, country rock. and associated host rocks from Wittenoom Gorge. The spectrum of the country rock is appreciably different from those of crocidolite and the magnetite-rich host rocks which are closely similar. A process to separate crocidolite-bearing ore from country rock based on infra-red emission is therefore possible in theory.

Jan 1, 1966

Yallourn brown coal and its characteristics have been the subject of innumerable papers and discussions. The Lurgi process adopted for the production of Towns gas by the gasification of brown coal has been described frequently in literature.The application of the Lurgi process for the gasification of Yallourn briquettes has naturally lead to some unexpected problems. Rather than attempt to review the whole field of experience gained in the first two years of operation of the gasification plant at Morwell, this paper attempts to describe two problems encountered, peculiar to the fuel used, and the steps taken in overcoming them.THE PROCESS AND PLANTTo clarify the conditions surrounding the problems, it is necessary to briefly describe the gasification and cooling processes and plant.Brown coal briquettes are gasified in a pressure generator, using a mixture of steam and oxygen as a gasifying medium. Crude gas produced in the generator is washed and cooled in the waste heat boiler and coolers. Figure 1 shows an arrangement of the generator and coolers. The gasifying medium enters the generator through a hollow shaft in the base. This shaft drives the grate, which has three purposes: (a) to distribute the gasifying medium into the fuel bed; (b) to extract the ash from the fuel bed; (c) to support the fuel bed.Briquettes enter the top of the generator through the coal lock chamber and the fuel bed is maintained at a reasonably...

Jan 1, 1960

THE furnace described in this paper was installed and has been used by the writer for the melting of rich gold-bearing material, and has given complete satisfaction. It may, therefore, prove of interest to other metallurgists who are faced with a similarproblem. A furnace of this type should be most suitable for the reduction of "cyanide preeipitate," "charcoal ash," "anode sludge," &c. formerly the melting was done in fire-clay crucibles, using coke or crude oil as fuel, but this method is costly, slow, and unsatisfactory. A small water-jacketed blastfurnace was also tried on this material after briquetting it, but was discarded in favour of the electric furnace. The furnace may be described as a simple form of the Heroult resistance furnace, with an adjustable upper electrode and a fixed bottom electrode. This is in accordanee with Stansfield's classification of electric furnaces. The heating is mostly due to the resistance offered the current by the molten slag. The melting chamber consists of a steel drum 14 in. in diameter and 21 in. high, and is lined with silica bricks specially made to fit the shell. The internal diameter is G in. The bricks contain 92 % silica, are made from calcined quartzite bonded with fireclay, and are similar in composition to those used for lining steel converters. They are set in a mixture of finely-ground quartzite and clay, and well dried out. The shell is bolted to a steel plate, which forms the decking of a truck running on rails, so that the furnace can be moved under ahood for carrying off the fumes. A cast-iron slag spout is bolted to the shell below the tapping hole, which is 4 in. from the bottom of the shell. Opposite this another hole 1 in. in diameter is drilled through the shell and lining for the passage of the lower...

Jan 1, 1918

Using Mineral Maps to Rank Potential Processing Behaviour

Sep 13, 2010