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By M. A. Grossmann

THE hardenability of most steels can be predicted within 10 to 15 per cent provided the complete chemical composition is known, including "incidental" elements; and provided the as-quenched grain size is known; and provided, finally, that the composition and heating temperatures for hardening are such as to result in austenite free from carbide particles. In method proposed herein, the steel is considered as having a base hardenability due to its carbon content alone (the hardenability of a ''pure steel" of the given carbon content, without any other elements), and this base hardenability is multiplied by a multiplying factor for each chemical element present. After multiplying all these together, the final product is the hardenability. Grain sue may be taken into account either in the base hardenability or after the multiplication. Hardenability is stated in terms of "ideal critical diameter"; namely, the diameter of bar, in inches, that will just harden all the way through (absence of un- hardened core) in an "ideal" quench, and the calculation may also be related to the Jominy test. The data bring out certain features rather clearly. For example: I. It is quite useless to attempt to predict hardenability unless all elements, including "incidentals," are known; thus an "incidental" chromium content of 0.20 per cent increases the hardenability by about 50 per cent. 2. The relative effectiveness of different alloys is sometimes unexpected; thus molybde- num when calculated in this way appears to be of the same order of effectiveness as manganese, rather than much more powerful as wouldappear to be common experience; observe that an increase from no manganese to 0.20 per cent Mn provides a multiplying factor of 1.67, and an increase from no molybdenum to 0.20 per cent Mo provides a factor of 1.63, an increase of over 60 per cent in each case. However, if to a steel containing 0.50 per cent Mn there is added " 20 points of manganese," the factor is raised from 2.65 (for 0.50 per cent Mn) to 3.35 (for 0.70 per cent Mn), or an increase of only 26 per cent. Thus the first small addition of an element has a much more powerful percentage effect than an equal further addition when some is already present, and in most cases the effect of molybdenum is considered in relation to a steel in which molybdenum is absent. 3. If two elements are equally effective, a greater hardenability will be obtained by using, for example, 0.5 per cent of each than by using 1.0 per cent of either of them alone. 4. A knowledge of the as-quenched grain size is essential for precise work, since a difference of only one grain size number (say No. 7 instead of No. 6) makes a difference of almost lo per cent in hardenability (in these units); this, however, does not apply to certain steels of high hardenability. It should be emphasized that in chromium steels (over 0.30 per cent Cr) and chrome- molybdenum and chrome-vanadium steels, undissolved carbides are likely to be present in the steel as quenched, and that in such cases the charts can indicate only a maximum possible hardenability, whereas the extent of hardening actually obtained may be much less. Thus tests on a number of chrome-molybdenum steels have indicated a degree of hardening amounting to only 50 to 65 per cent of the maximum possible, and in chromium steels from full hardening (100 per cent) down to as low as 70 per cent. On the other hand, when the amount of such elements is small (Cr under 0.30 per cent, Mo up to 0.25 per cent in the absence of Cr, and V up to 0.04 per cent), the charts provide reasonable approximations. The precise figures on the charts are suggested as tentative, subject to some modification as more data accumulate, but the fundamental concept appears to be supported by tests made on a wide variety of steels, a few of the correlations being shown in Fig. I.

Jan 1, 1942

By C. H. North, L. E. Lynd, W. W. Anderson, H. Sigurdson

CONSIDERABLE uncertainty is revealed in the literature regarding the nature of the titanium minerals which make up the bulk of the heavy, opaque fractions of numerous beach sand deposits of the world. An investigation was made, therefore, of beach sand concentrates of North Carolina, Florida, Brazil, and India. Magnetic concentration, X-ray, and microscope data were obtained which show that these concentrates consist essentially of ilmenite and its alteration products. The alteration, brought about by oxidation and leaching of iron values, has resulted in upgrading the ores to a range of 56 to 64 pct TiO2, as compared with 52.7 pct in ilmenite of theoretical composition. Conclusions drawn regarding the nature of the dominant titanium-bearing mineral in beach sand deposits have been based mainly on chemical composition, specific gravity, and petrography. This material has usually been referred to as ilmenite or weathered ilmenite. It has also been referred to as arizonite because in chemical composition it resembles an occurrence in Arizona which was described by Palmer1 in 1909.

Jan 8, 1954

By L. H. Robinson

Triaxial compression tests on Indiana limestone indicate that chemical additives in the pore fluids can increase or decrease the strength in plastic failure but not in brittle failure. Tests using a series of the sodium salts of dicarboxylic acids show that odd-number carbon-atom chains decrease the yield strength as much as 3.0 x 10 3 psi, and even-number carbon-atom chains increase the yield strength as much as 9.0 x 102 psi. ,The most effective chemical (sodium citrate) decreased the yield strength of Indiana limestone from 16.0 x 103 to 12.0 x 103 psi. The chemical additives investigated have no influence on microbit drilling rate when drilling with zero differential pressure. However, when drilling at a 2.0 x 103-psi pressure differeniial and using an odd-number carbon chain compound as the circulating fluid, the roller bit drilling rates were slower than with water whereas the drag bit drilling rates were faster. One even-number carbon chain compound added to the circulating fluid produces the opposite effect: the roller bit drilling rate is slightly faster than with water and the drag bit slower than with water. INTRODUCTION A Russian book by Rehbinderl published in 1944 generated much interest in the possibility of aiding and accelerating the destruction of solids by the action of a liquid in which the solids are deformed. This book describes a process in which microcracks are generated during elastic deformation. To describe this process, the rock is divided into three zones: (1) the zone in which the destruction takes place, (2) the predestruc-tion zone (an affected area immediately below the destroyed zone) and (3) the undisturbed specimen. Consider a load applied normally to a surface of an infinite slab of rock. Immediately below the point of application of the load, the rock is destroyed by compression or shear forces. Below this area of destruction, because of a great number of discontinuities ranging from defects to weak points in crystals of discontinuities in crystal latices, very small cracks are created in or between the crystals (often referred to as microcracks). Upon removing the load, the broken rock in the destroyed zone could be removed. In the lower predestruction zone, however, the microcracks in and between the crystals could disappear by the process of rehealing, i.e., the molecular attraction from one side of the crack to the other side being sufficient to completely eliminate the crack. Thus, a large number of these microcracks possibly exist only for a relatively short period of time. The concept of small cracks being generated within the crystals of a rock is not unreasonable. If the rock matrix is deformed below the yield point, some of the defects present within the crystalline structure could start small cracks through the interior of the grains. Upon removal of the load, these microcracks reheal (or the newly generated surfaces come back together) so that all evidence of cracks completely disappears. Under various types of loading, and in various types of fluids, the rehealing of these cracks would be time dependent. If a liquid adhered to the surface of a rock, it could penetrate into the microcracks and thus delay or prevent the rehealing process. This suggests that the prevention of healing of the microcracks may be dependent upon the wetting characteristics of the solid. Thus, rocks which are water-wet should be more easily destroyed in water than in nonpolar hydrocarbon liquid. Adsorption of a liquid could also reduce the free surface energy which could explain the decrease in strengths of materials under nonrepetitive-type loading. Rehbinder's work prompted Boozer, Hiller and Serdengecti 2 to examine the effects of pore fluids on the deformation of rocks subjected to triaxial compression over a range of confining pressures, temperatures and strain rates. Fluids which strongly adsorbed on the rock grain surfaces decreased the strength of sandstone and limestone, which deformed plastically. For certain strain

By F. R. Morral, K. T. Aust

The preferred orientation and earing characteristics of ZS aluminum were studied. An empirical correlation was obtained relating earing behavior and variation of mechanical properties for face-centered cubic metals. Strain-ratio mecsurements for ZS were found to be in good agreement with Hill's theory of plastic anisotropy. DIRECTIONALITY in sheet metals may be revealed by earing in a cupping test, or by the variation of mechanical properties of tensile specimens taken at different angles to the rolling direction. However, no simple correlation appears to exist between earing and variation in mechanical properties in metals and alloys studied.1-5 Aluminum of commercial purity (known as 2S, with a specified minimum of 99.0 pct Al) cast by the direct casting process was chosen in the present investigation since ears at 45° or 0°, 90° can readily be obtained. Preferred orientation is often the principal cause of uneven metal flow, such as earing, and variation in mechanical properties. Consequently, the preferred orientation characteristics of 2s aluminum were initially studied using both X-ray diffraction and micrographic techniques. The variation of mechanical properties with angle to the rolling direction was next determined in an effort to clarify the apparent lack of correlation of earing behavior with mechanical properties for face-centered cubic metals. Strain-ratio*5,8 measurements were finally conducted to determine first, if the maximum values of the strain ratio occurred at the earing positions, and second, if Hill's theory of plastic anisotropy7 is applicable to other face-centered cubic metals such as aluminum. Detailed treatments, working, and heat treating are not given in this paper since this study is not concerned with the methods to produce earing, but to correlate earing with other properties and characteristics of the material. The percentage of earing was measured using the formula specified by the x—Y Aluminum Association, -------- X 100 = pct earing, where x is the height of the ear and y is the height of the valley from the bottom of the cup. Preferred Orientation Characteristics of 2S X-ray Studies: Beck and coworkers8 have determined that the rolling texture of 2s after 95 pct cold reduction may be approximately described by four equivalent ideal orientations near (123) [121]. Also, the recrystallization or annealing texture of 2s aluminum consists of four components of the (123) [l21] type, retained from the rolling texture, and of a (100) [001] or cube texture component." Fig. 1 illustrates the typical appearance of deep drawn earing cups with the corresponding X-ray diffraction patterns. The X-ray patterns were taken with copper radiation using the structure-integrating method'" in which the specimen is scanned during the X-ray exposure. The rolling direction was vertical and the rolling plane was perpendicular to the horizontal X-ray beam. It was found that an increase in the retained rolling texture component resulted in a greater 45" ear height, while an increase in the recrystallization texture component (i.e., cube texture) caused greater 0°, 90° earing. X-ray diffraction studies of 2s cold rolled to final thickness followed by a final anneal have shown that the rolling texture, and also the retained component of the rolling texture after annealing, are increased with greater cold-rolling reduction. The preferred orientation characteristics of 2s sheets given an intermediate anneal between cold rolling followed by a final anneal were found to depend on the position of the intermediate anneal during cold rolling. For instance, three identical samples of 2s homogenized ingot, each 1 in. thick, were given the following cold-rolling and annealing treatments: 1—50 pct reduction, intermediate anneal, 96 pct reduction to 0.020 in. and a final anneal; 2—75 pct reduction, intermediate anneal, 92 pct reduction to 0.020 in. and a final anneal; and 3—90 pct reduction, intermediate anneal, 80 pct reduction to 0.020 in. and a final anneal. The intermediate and final annealing treatments consisted of a 70°F per hr heating rate, held 6 hr at 800°F and air cooled. Typical X-ray patterns after each of these treatments are shown in Fig. 2. It was evident that after treatment 1, the retained rolling texture component predominated; after treatment 2, the retained roll-

Jan 1, 1954

By J. Chipman, J. C. Fulton

Reduction of silicon from blast-furnace-type slags by carbon-saturated iron is a very slow reaction even under conditions of rapid stirring. Equilibrium under atmospheric pressure of carbon monoxide was approached from both sides, and the silica-silicon relation was established at temperatures of 1425º to 1700°C for slags containing up to 20 pct Al2O3. Silicon carbide is formed by reaction of graphite with high silica slags and the conditions for its formation were determined. Activities of SiO2 and of CaO in their binary solutions at 1600°C were determined. The effects on the activity of SiO2 were established for additions of 10 to 20 pct AI2O3 and of 10 pct MgO. STUDIES of chemical reactions between blast-*>-5 furnace slags and metal have been focussed on the transfer of sulphur from metal to slag. The important role which silica reduction plays in this process' has led to a study of the transfer of silicon from slag to metal and the equilibrium represented by the equation SiO2 (in slag) + 2C (graphite) = Si + 2CO (g). [I.] The authors2 have published an account of the experimental method employed in attacking this problem and of three series of experimental results at 1600°C. This paper contains data on some additional compositions and extends the observations to cover the temperature range 1425° to 1700°C. The data are used to determine the activity of silica in the slags. As in the earlier experiments, the atmosphere was carbon monoxide which flowed through the furnace at 150 ml per min. In certain heats designated in the tables and figures, the gas was bubbled through the melt using a graphite tube. The latter increased in porosity during a run and in some cases bubbling ceased as indicated by cessation of surging. Some results were discarded for this reason. Experimental Results The new data are shown in Tables I through V and both old and new data are plotted in Figs. 1

Jan 1, 1955

By John J. Collins

Page Purpose and scope..................... 521 Core sampling......................... 521 Sludge sampling....................... 527 Combining core and sludge assays ...... 533 Deviation and surveying of drill holes. . . . 537 Conclusions........................... 544 Acknowledgments...................... 545 Bibliography.......................... 545 Purpose and Scope The purpose of this paper is to review a few of the problems involved in the interpretation of diamond-drill core and sludge samples, with the hope that it will stimulate discussion and bring forth some of the information on the subject that has been accumulated by various organizations. The release of these data would benefit the mining industry as a whole. Particularly valuable would be the details of drilling programs that have been tested by actual mining operations, as most of the available published material is unsupported by production records. The scope of this paper is limited to a few of the commonest problems of interpreting diamond-drill core and sludge samples and the deviation of holes. It does not include the description of routine operations performed by the drillers, nor the estimation of ore reserves. The methods of calculating reserves have been described,25,26,31,32,50,65 but more informa- tion is needed on the results shown by actual mining operations. Core Sampling The accuracy of diamond-drill-hole Sampling depends in large measure on the percentage of core recovery. As a general rule, the longer the run, the poorer is the recovery. Although the longer runs allow cheaper drilling costs, the determining factor should be the percentage of recovery desired. The problem is one of balancing accuracy against costs. Holes of larger diameter may show improved recovery, except as Joralemon* points out that there are some conditions in which small holes give better core recovery than large holes. This is particularly true, he says; in rocks like shattered quartzite, where larger core tends to break in angular fragments and grind up, while the diameter of smaller core is less than the distance between joint planes and grinding is not so serious. In a large measure the length of the sample run should depend on the type of deposit. Favorable drilling may allow uniform sample runs of 5 ft., 10 ft., or perhaps 20 ft. In veins or beds of relatively narrow widths and changing characteristics, however, the ore zone may be overrun and ground in a core barrel full of waste rock. Generally it is desirable to break the sample at a change in the rock or ore. Such a change; often indicated by a color change in the sludge water, should be a a for the driller to make a "dry" block and to pull out that run regardless of the length. Such a procedure permits the segregation of waste from ore samples so

Jan 1, 1946

By John J. Collins

[CONTENTS PAGE Purpose and scopeI Core samplingI Sludge sampling.....7 Combining core and sludge assays13 Deviation and surveying of drill holes17 Conclusions24 Acknowledgments25 Bibliography25] PURPOSE AND SCOPE The purpose of this paper is to review a few of the problems involved in the interpretation of diamond-drill core and sludge samples, with the hope that it will stimulate discussion and bring forth some of the information on the subject that has been accumulated by various organizations. The release of these data would benefit the mining industry as a whole. Particularly valuable would be the details of drilling programs that have been tested by actual mining operations, as most of the available published material is unsupported by production records. The scope of this paper is limited to a few of the commonest problems of interpreting diamond-drill core and sludge samples and the deviation of holes. It does not include the description of routine operations performed by the drillers, nor the estimation of ore reserves. The methods of calculating reserves have been described 25,26,31,32.50,65 but more information is needed on the results shown by actual mining operations. CORE SAMPLING The accuracy of diamond-drill-hole sampling depends in large measure on the percentage of core recovery. As a general rule, the longer the run, the poorer is the recovery. Although the longer runs allow cheaper drilling costs, the determining factor should be the percentage of recovery desired. The problem is one of balancing accuracy against costs. Holes of larger diameter may show improved recovery, except as Joralemon* points out that there are some conditions in which small holes give better core recovery than large holes. This is particularly true, he says, in rocks like shattered quartzite, where larger core tends to break in angular fragments and grind up, while the diameter of smaller core is less than the distance between joint planes and grinding is not so serious. In a large measure the length of the sample run should depend on the type of deposit. Favorable drilling may allow uniform sample runs of 5 ft., 10 ft., or perhaps 20 ft. In veins or beds of relatively narrow widths and changing characteristics, however, the ore zone may be overrun and ground in a core barrel full of waste rock. Generally it is desirable to break the sample at a change in the rock or ore. Such a change, often indicated by a color change in the sludge water, should be a signal for the driller to make a "dry" block and to pull out that run regardless of the length. Such a procedure permits the segregation of waste from ore samples so

Jan 1, 1946

By L. B. Herring, Harold Decker

The area under discussion includes districts 2 and 4, so designated by the Texas Railroad Commission,‡ and comprises the following 26 counties: Bee, Brooks, Calhoun, Cameron, De Witt, Duval, Goliad, Gonzales, Hidalgo, Jackson, Jim Hogg, Jim Wells, Karnes, Kenedy, Kleburg, Lavaca, Live Oak, Nueces, Refu-gio, San Patricia, Starr, Victoria, Webb, Willacy, Wilson and Zapata. Drilling and Production The total number of wells drilled in this district during 1944 is shown in Table 5. This indicates a 41 per cent increase in all drilling over 1943. In spite of every handicap created by the war, the oil industry more than met the crisis in its drilling program in this district. Last year we thought it would be impossible to add to the total number of wells drilled in the previous yea;, but in spite of the lack of manpower and materials this large increase was shown. During 1944 this district produced 124,201,978 bbl. of oil from 11,607 producing wells, whereas in 1943 it produced 88,421,693 bbl. from 11,211 producing wells. This is an increase of 35,780,285 bbl. of oil. Some decline has been shown in the older fields arid undoubtedly the majority of wells in the district are producing at too high a rate. However, this district has been able to meet any demands made on it by the Petroleum Administration for War for increased production. Discoveries and Extensions There was a slight decline over the preceding year in the number of wildcats drilled, but the number of discoveries increased. In most instances subsequent development has not been sufficient to arrive at preliminary valuations but it appears that the over-all oil discoveries were below normal and that the gas discovcrics were relatively more important. The Canolis and Tijerina pools, Jim Wells County, and the Dan Sullivan pool, Brooks County, appear to be the outstanding oil discoveries of the year. No important oil reserve was discovered or developed in the Wilcox horizons, although considerable wildcatting was done. Important extensions were made at Agua Dulce and Stratton in Nueces and Teleberg Counties. Production was increased appreciably at Willimar, Willacy County, and Seeligson, Jim Wells County, in sands and areas which were apparently productive at the beginning of the year. Refining Most of the major work in the changing and completing of refineries was finished this past year. Some of the most modern refineries in the industry are now located in the Corpus Christi area. Gas and Condensate No new recycling projects were commenced during the year, nor were there any important additions to the old operations. No major gas reserve was developed, although several new discoveries suggest potentid possibilities.

Jan 1, 1945

By W. David Menzie

An inventory of the mineral resources of a region is a most desirable basis for planning their systematic development. In the absence of appropriate samples upon which to base a reliable estimate of this inventory, investigators have resorted to a number of indirect approaches; the unit regional value concept forms the basis for one such approach. The produced resources of a region are a function of the inventory multiplied by the degree of intensity (some fraction between zero and one) of development of the resources. A convenient means of expressing this amount is to accumulate the weight and value of resource and to prorate the totals over the area represented by the unit sampled; i.e., weight and value per unit area or tonnes/km.2 and U.S. 1967 $/km.2. When this approach is used for the U.S.A., South Africa and Rhodesia the average value of (log.) U.S. 67$/km.2 for the states of the U.S.A. and South Africa are similar ($55,176 U.S.$67/km.2 and $52,538/km.2 respectively); whereas, Rhodesia is relatively underdeveloped (10,301 U.S.67$/km.2). On the other hand if the individual commodities are used as a basis for comparison, the U.S.A. shows the greatest diversity (67 commodities out of a possible total of 75) with South Africa next (50 commodities) and Rhodesia last with only 26 commodities. Since it is known that area and value are not simply related perhaps diversity is directly related to area. Again the kinds of commodities which have contributed the greatest value to the totals differs, with fuels (petroleum, coal and natural gas) predominating in the U.S.A. totals; whereas, South Africa and Rhodesia obtain their greatest contributions from gold, diamonds (S. Africa) coal and asbestos. In each case the greatest value of resources is produced from sedimentary rocks. As a somewhat different kind of example, consider a single resource (petroleum, the most valuable in the U.S.A.) over a large area (number of sampling units) the U.S.A. by state. Furthermore, assume that the model frequency distribution of the amount of petroleum (tonnes/km.2) is log normal. Then the present production fails to match the model first because 17 states (34% out of 50) have not produced petroleum. Of the remaining 33 states, Louisiana has produced the most (15,177 tonnes/km.2) and the frequency histogram is still skew. A spatial analysis of the distribution of the amount of petroleum by state shows that the samples (i.e., states) are not random; the non-producers and producers tend to cluster. It remains to be seen if this is indeed a true representation of the incidence of petroleum or is a function of the exploration philosophy currently in vogue.

Jan 1, 1977

INTRODUCTION The International Finance Corporation (IFC) is affiliated with the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) but operates with a separate staff and funding. It supplements the activities of the Bank by providing, to private business, equity and loans without government guarantees in whatever form and combination most suited to the project. IFC frequently complements the Bank's activities by utilizing, for example, the Bank's public sector infrastructure activities to support IFC's private sector projects. In the case of local financial institutions especially, IFC collaborates with the Bank by providing technical and financial assistance. IFC is the world's largest multilateral organization which finances private sector business in developing countries. IFC's fundamental purpose is to promote the economic development of its developing member countries through the support of the private sector. Of the 124 member countries of IFC, more than 100 are developing countries. Since it began operations in 1956, IFC has been associated with more than 2,000 companies and financial institutions in supporting over 700 business ventures in more than 80 countries. The total capital costs of these projects exceeds $26,000 million. In the 1984 fiscal year, IFC approved 62 projects in 37 countries with a total project cost of $2,473 million. IFC will make investments only if sufficient capital cannot be obtained on reasonable terms from other sources. IFC often serves as the catalyst for a project by encouraging other investors--from inside and outside the host country--to make their own equity investments along with the local sponsor for a particular project. IFC'S SPECIAL ROLE The significance of IFC's role extends beyond just its financing and technical assistance: IFC's capability to raise investor confidence in a project and to help all the participants to arrive at mutually satisfactory investment arrangements is its distinctive character. Direct Investments IFC invests in all types of projects both large and small. Heavy industrial ventures not only supply essential materials and equipment for other domestic enterprises, but also earn foreign exchange through exports. In recent years, increased emphasis has been placed on agriculture and agribusiness products, aquaculture, food and food processing, and other renewable and nonrenewable resources such as metals and energy. [ ] An overall objective of IFC is to assist entrepreneurs and others in the private sector raise the needed capital for business ventures. IFC does not compete with, nor seek to replace private initiative and capital. Rather, IFC helps to raise funds in order to undertake projects that would otherwise be held back by the lack of adequate funding. IFC can do this in several ways: IFC can invest in equity and make loans for its own account. But beyond that, IFC can reach out into the international capital markets in search of additional capital. Because of IFC's 25 years experience and record, outside investors who might otherwise be

Jan 1, 1985

By W. C. Hagel, H. J. Beattie

Phases present at 2200° and 1500°F (1204° and 816°C) were identified in sixty wrought developmental austenitic alloys possessing wide compositional variations. The bases were iron-, cobalt-, and nickel-rich as well as a base with equal parts of each. There are only two structure types previously not found in similar alloys, viz .-the Co3 W and the Fe3Al types. A molybdenum-rich monocarbide decorates dislocations with unusual clarity. Other results provide correlations between alloy composition and phas e precipitation. Grouping intermetal -lic phases into three general classes : I) geometrically close-packed, 2) topologically close-packed, and 3) bcc derivatives, the nickel base prefers the first, the iron base the second, and the cobalt base the third—each base tending to shun the other two classes. Thus, a crystal-chemistry effect previously noted by Laves and Wallbaum can he expanded for these Group VIII elemental bases. There appear to he no quaternary or higher -order structure types requiring more than three atomic species. AFTER studying aging reactions in many diverse commercial austenitic alloys1-4 as a function of detailed time-temperature variations in heat treatment, it became apparent that matrix composition influenced structure types and morphologies to a large extent. These tendencies were related4 to a crystal-chemistry effect uncovered by Laves and Wallbaum.5,6 We have now directed our efforts to exploration of the whole ternary field, covering the standard base elements—iron, cobalt. and nickel— with 10 to 20 pct Cr and moderate amounts, up to 10 pct, of the usual alloy additions. Solutioning and aging treatments were held constant with major emphasis on X-ray identification of microconstituents. The possible existence of exceptions to the Laves-Wallbaum effect, or any new phases, was sought. Phases appearing in austenitic alloys can be classified as geometrically close-packed (gcp), octahedral or nonoctahedral interstitial compounds, topologically close-packed (tcp), semicarbides, and bcc derivatives. Crystal structures of the first four classifications can be visualized as a dense packing of semirigid spheres of different sizes, while the bcc derivatives represent a less efficient packing of spheres. The Laves-Wallbaum effect involves the gcp and tcp phases. Gcp phases possess both tetrahedral and large octahedral interstices; examples are Ni3Ti(n), NiSAl(y'), Co3W(E), and other ordered AB3 compounds where B atoms are smaller than A. Their precipitation is primarily intragranular, presumably coherent with an austenitic matrix, and a chief source of strengthening. Most octahedral interstitial compounds (e.g., CbC, Tic, TiN, Mo2C) have a gcp lattice of large metal atoms which accommodate small carbon or nitrogen atoms in the octahedral interstices. The compound Ti2SC, previously designated Y phase or T phase, can, with some reservation due to its partial co-valency, be placed in this category.7 The nonoctahedral interstitials (e.g., M7C3, Fe3C) represent close-packings of spheres in structures that provide larger triangular-prism interstices for carbon, since the octahedral interstices formed by chromium and iron atoms are too small. Tcp phases possess only tetrahedral interstices; examples are Laves (Fe2Ti, Fe2Cb, Fe2W...AB2), p(Fe7MO6, Co7W8.... A8B7), and (FeCr, Co2Cr3)

Jan 1, 1965

By H. Reiss

The zone-melting process in which redistribution of solute in a solid bar is effected by the passage of a molten zone is considered mathematically. Simple approximate techniques are developed for computing the manner in which redistribution occurs as molten zones continue to pass. The introduction of the "zone-melting flux" provides valuable insight into the nature of the phenomenon, as well as a central mathematical theme in terms of which the process can be discussed. Curves are presented for typical and general cases. AN extremely efficient purification technique was described recently by Pfann.1 Known as zone refining, it consisted of the slow passage of a series of molten zones, produced by external heaters, through a long solid ingot of the substance to be purified. Equations were given for the maximum separation attainable, and a numerical computation method was described for obtaining the concentration in the ingot after a given number of zone passes. The present paper offers an interpretation of the physical nature of zone melting in terms of a transport process in which formal diffusive and convec-tive flows occur. This interpretation, in addition to providing insight into the physical nature of the process, also provides a basis for its mathematical treatment. From this basis, useful equations are developed for the solute concentration in the ingot as a function of the number of zone passes. These are applicable particularly where large numbers of passes are necessary and where numerical computational methods might be laborious. All considerations will deal with the limiting form of the process, described by Pfann,' in which: 1—Diffusion in the solid is considered negligible. 2—Mixing in the liquid is supposed, complete. 3—The distribution coefficient, k, measuring the ratio (at equilibrium) of solute concentration in the solid to that in the liquid is supposed, independent of composition. In general, this paper will be concerned with a bar of uniform (actually unit) cross section, ex- tending in the x-direction from x = 0 to x = L, where L may be infinite. Zone melting is a transport process, and as such must admit of interpretation in terms of a flux of transported quantity. However, the progress of operation is not measured in units of time but in terms of the number of completed zone passes. Consequently, the zone-melting flux will be a rate, per unit pass, rather than per unit time. The description of this flux and the examination of its properties is given below. Zone-Melting Flux Fig. 1 represents an intermediate stage of the nth pass. Concentration C is plotted against distance, x. The molten zone with its back at the point x and front at x + I moves in the direction indicated by the arrow. As it moves, it leaves behind the nth

Jan 1, 1955

By J. G. Giddings, R. Kobayashi

Residual viscosity, the ViSCOSitY at a given pressure and temperature minus the dilute gas viscosity at the same temperature, has been found to be independent of temperature for pure components and mixtures for simple molecules and light hydrocarbons. The residual viscosities for methane, ethane, propane and four mixtures were correlated as a function of reduced density and molecular weight. INTRODUCTION Earlier efforts in correlating the viscosity of light hydrocarbons and associated gases under pressure, primarily by some form of the corresponding states principle, have been reported elsewhere.7 The formal theory of corresponding states principle for viscosity from non-equilibrium statistical mechanical arguments for simple molecules has been developed by Helfand and Rice.13 The most serious obstacle to the development of a generalized corresponding states representation of viscosity data, even for simple molecules, has been the limited quantity of precise viscosity data of pure components and mixtures over a wide range of pressure and temperature conditions. Viscosity data on light hydrocarbons have recently been contributed by several laboratories.2,6,8,23,25,26 In the study of the viscosity of nitrogen, Michels and Gibson" observed that the viscosities of nitrogen as a function of density gave parallel isotherms. The same behavior has since been reported for other gases.".= The observed behavior indicates that the residual viscosity or the viscosity at a given pressure and temperature minus the dilute gas viscosity at the same temperature is a unique function of the density. Abas-Zade,1 Michels and Botzen,18 and Michels, Bot-Zen, Friedman and Sengers,19 observed similar behavior for thermal conductivity, the residual thermal conductivity being defined in a manner parallel to that of residual viscosity. Thodos and co-workers 4,15,24 applied the residual viscosity concept to the viscosity of pure monatomic and diatomic gases. Ellington and co-workers10,25 made the residual viscosity vs density plots for ethane and propane, but omitted the region below a residual viscosity of 15 micropoise and showed a systematic separation of the ethane isotherms in the low density region. Eakin correlated the residual viscosity of methane, ethane, propane and n-butane empirically as a function of density and molecular weight: Carmichael and Sage6 recently presented ethane residual viscosity vs density values in the gaseous liquid, and near critical regions as a single univariant function of density. Flynn, Hanks, Lemaire and ROSS" have contributed extremely accurate viscosity data to confirm that the residual viscosity concept is essentially correct, but may not be accurate within 0.1 per cent of the viscosity value for the gaseous state- The recent studies by Giddings12 indicate that the residual viscosity of methane, propane and each of four methane-propane mixtures are unique functions of density Over the temperature and the density ranges studied.

Jan 1, 1965

By Roland J. Lapee

A history of the progress made in copper refining in Montana is presented. The casting furnaces and the newly rebuilt electrolytic refinery are descmbed and operating details are given. Experiences with various addition agents, effects of rernoval of chlorine from the electrolyte, and effects of separan on electrolyte and on copper deposit are discussed. Observatzons are made on the effect of various impurities in anode copper and behavior of thezr salts in electrolyte and in slime, on treatment of slime for removal of copper, and on electrolyte puriification problems. The improved method for production of starting sheets is described. Attention is given to new materials for construction and to improvement in matrials handling ad quality control. COPPER refining at Great Falls, Montana, dates back to 1892. The original plant produced 65,000 lb. of cathodes per day at a current density of 16 amp per sq ft. In this plant anodes and cathodes were handled to and from the cells by means of hand-operated chain blocks and were moved about the plant by hand trucks. Cathodes were melted in coal-fired, reverbera-tory furnaces, were charged by hand, and refined copper was dipped by hand and cast in iron molds. In 1916, a new, modern plant with capacity to refine 18 million Ib. copper per month was built. Two refining furnaces were built, and each was provided with a twenty-mold Clark casting wheel. In 1922, the furnaces were converted to the use of pulverized coal: in 1923, to the use of oil; and in 1928, to the use of natural gas. In 1926, the plant was enlarged 50 pct. The use of pulverized coal for refining copper at Great Falls was discussed1 in a paper presented at the Salt Lake City meeting of the Institute in September 1925. Also, a comparison of the use of various fuels in copper refining furnaces was discussed 2 in a paper presented at the New York meeting of the Institute in February 1932. Prior to 1943 the cellroom was operated with twenty-five 720-lb. anodes and 26 cathodes per cell. Four cathodes, each weighing about 165 lb., were produced from an anode. In 1943 the weight of the anode was reduced to 460 lb., and two cathodes, each weighing about 190 lb., were produced from an anode. In 1949, a Billet Casting Wheel for the production of 3 in. diam phosphor deoxidized billets was built. A paper, presented at the New York Meeting of the Institute in February 1956, describes3 this plant and operation. In the electrolytic refinery, production is controlled by variation of the current density. In 1956, germanium rectifiers on a separate electrical circuit were provided for the starting sheet section so that current density could be maintained at any desired figure. Also in 1956, a program of modernization and enlargement of the Electrolytic Copper Refinery was started. This program, when completed, will raise the capacity of the Great Falls Electrolytic Copper Refinery approximately 33 pct, to 33 million lb. of cathodes per month. Furnace capacity for melting cathodes and anode scrap is ample to take care of the increased production from the electrolytic refinery. This fortunate condition came about primarily as the result of the three following changes: 1) The furnaces were lengthened 10 ft in 1922 when the fireboxes were found unnecessary for burning powdered coal. 2) Furnace life, and hence furnace capacity, was increased by the successful efforts of the Copper Refinery staff to develop a method for sanding furnace side walls and roof. 3) The natural gas being used has a very low sulfur content. As a result, it is possible to reduce time spent rabbling and poling and thus greatly increase tons per furnace charge. TANKHOUSE AND TANKS The Great Falls Electrolytic Refinery is 535 ft long by 252 ft wide. The cells are arranged in four crane bays in which are operated seven 10 ton Whiting Cranes. The old cells are in groups of ten, with circulation of electrolyte through five cells in cascade and with aisles between the groups of ten cells. The new cells are nested in groups of sixteen with no aisles, are all on one level, and have individual circulation to each cell. Present plans call for 1792 commercial cells and 128 stripper cells. To reduce confusion during the construction period, and to use the cranes, cars, and other equipment already on hand, the cells in the rebuilt section were designed to have approximately the same inside dimensions as the cells in the old part of the

Jan 1, 1962

By Jaakko Kajamaa

Neutron diffraction was applied to determine sheet textures by the transmission method. Cold-rolled and recrystallized copper sheets were investigated. The amount of cube texture was determined for three compositions, in which the phosphorus content was, respectively, 0, 0.005, and 0.03 wt pct. The heat treatment was in every case 8 sec at 650°C. In the two latter cases the cube texture was prevented. In addition a comparison with the X-ray diffraction transmission method was made with the 96 pct cold-rolled copper sheet. Outer parts of both (111) pole figures can be considered to be rather identical. This is seen from the fact that the intensity ratio ITD/120" was 0.45 for neutron diffraction and 0.40 for X-ray diffraction. Differences between the methods were discussed in detail. Features peculiar to neutron and X-ray diffraction in texture studies were listed and compared. In this work neutron diffraction was applied to determine sheet textures. Specifically, it was desired to ascertain whether this method can be used to reveal differences when compared to other methods. In addition, the amount of the cube texture in copper sheets was determined as a function of phosphorus content. Previous applications of neutron diffraction to texture problems include the following: nickel wires,' wire of some bcc metals,' and uranium bars.3 In the neutron diffraction technique the greatest difference is in the sample—its method of production and its volume. A sample needs no treatment and its volume is roughly 105 times larger than the volume of an X-ray diffraction sample. The cold-rolled sheet was investigated both by neutron diffraction and by X-ray diffraction, because it is expected that, due to large number of defects, possible differences in the results of the two methods would be revealed. It is a well-known fact that X-ray lines show broadening when cold-worked. Analysis has shown that this is based chiefly on small crystalline size, micro-stresses, and/or faults.4'5 Neutrons are sensitive to the above-mentioned disturbing factors as well, but circumstances in diffraction are different from the X-ray case. Because the sample represents a larger volume, the result is an average over that volume. In addition, it can be assumed that the sample has preserved its original structure, because it needs no special preparation. The particular limitation of neutrons is the relatively low neutron intensity available from nuclear reactors. This decreases the resolution as compared to the X-ray diffraction methods. Furthermore, absorption mainly reduces diffracted X-ray intensity, while multiple scattering effects, i.e., secondary extinction, disturb neutron diffraction. SO neutrons and X-rays behave in a different way when interacting with matter. As in other structural investigations, one can utilize this difference in texture studies as well. One cold-rolled and three recrystallization textures in copper sheets were investigated by neutron diffraction. The samples were produced at the Outokumpu copper factory to the specifications shown in Table I. The paper is divided into five parts. The first deals with the theory of the measurement. In the second, experimental procedures are described. Results are presented in the third part. Both cold-rolled and re-crystallized samples are studied. Discussion is in the fourth part, and finally in the fifth part some conclusions are drawn. 1) THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS Properties peculiar to neutron diffraction are the following: a) the scattering length varies greatly between one element and another; b) many of the elements do not absorb neutrons appreciably. In this connection it is of primary interest to know the interaction of neutrons with lattice imperfections. As with X-rays this problem leads to diffraction analysis of deformed and recrystallized metals. From the physical point of view the main difference is that neutrons are scattered by nuclei (magnetic scattering is not considered here), whereas X-rays are scattered by electrons. The features peculiar to neutron and X-ray diffraction methods in texture studies are listed in Table 11. Pole figures are an important tool in performing structural analysis of deformed or recrystallized metal. Present texture research technology requires pole figures which are as precise as possible. The choice between these two methods depends on the technical information which is required. The X-ray diffraction transmission technique may give results which are not necessarily representative of the average physical state of the sample. Although foil samples normally contain enough crystallites for diffraction, they may not necessarily represent the whole structure. An example of this problem is the frequently observed difference between the "surface" and the "inside" texture of a sample. The production of foil samples may disturb the original structure of the parent material. The selection and orientation of the foil from the sample is quite arbitrary. Normally, a highly deformed piece of metal has several texture components. Different components are deformed in a slightly different manner. This is a re-

Jan 1, 1969

By B. R. Queneau

Steel has been chosen as the metal whose solidification will be used to tie in the principles discussed in the previous papers. Although steel is the most important [ ] practical example that could be chosen, its solidification is complicated by the presence of many elements added either intentionally or present as impurities. The liquid steel bath in an open-hearth furnace contains carbon, manganese, phosphorus, sulphur, and many residual alloying elements such as nickel, copper, and molybdenum. The bath also contains oxygen, the concentration of which is a function of the carbon content, as shown in Fig. I. Deoxidizers such as silicon and aluminum may be added either before or after tapping depending on the grade of steel being made. There are four types of steel ingots: Killed, semikilled, capped, and rimmed, and these differ from each other in their state of oxidation. Each type of steel has advantages in the production of specific steel products, and it should be emphasized that no one type should be considered superior to the others. Fully deoxidized steels, known as killed steels, have little or no gas evolution on solidification. When the steel solidifies in the mold, shrinkage occurs which causes a large void known as "pipe." To minimize the amount of metal that has to be discarded on account of pipe, a big-end-up mold is used together with a refractory "hot top" which supplies molten steel to the main body of the ingot while solidification proceeds, Fig. 2. A section through a 32x32 in. ingot is shown in Fig. 3. The "hot top" volume is about 15 pct of the ingot, and the yield from killed steel in billet form is about 8o pct of the ingot weight. High quality machinery and tool steels are rolled from killed-steel ingots, but at the present time this represents less than 20 pct of the total steel production in the United States. In order to reduce cost and to increase

Jan 1, 1951

By Erwin H. E. Gaertner

The brown-coal opencast mines in Germany's Rhineland have to cope with several problems. Predominant are densely populated areas with highly productive farmland, many railroads, highways, and rivers, as well as towns and farm settlements which have to be removed before or during the lifetime of a mine. Also the ground- water table has to be lowered to keep the deep opencast mines dry and stable. These problems urged a development towards deep opencast mines with powerful machines; the large material movement and the high coal production are the basis for the economic success in working the Rhenish brown-coal deposits. Up to now, bucket wheel excavators with a daily capacity of 100,000 m3 (130,000 cu yd) are in operation. Machines of twice this capacity are under construction. Corresponding to the excavators development, the stackers' capacity has to be increased too. The new stackers will reach a daily capacity of 240,000 m3 (310,000 cu yd). The haulage in the mine is performed by conveyor belt systems, which are arranged in such a manner that the belt lines meet at a belt switching point. Here the incoming lines may be connected to the outgoing ones so as to direct the material flow to the desired receiving stations. At the moment there are conveyor belts in operation with a width of 2.2 m (7.2 ft); the new belts will have a layout for 37,000 t/h (40,770 stph), the width of which amounts to 3.0 m (9.8 ft). All belts and driving stations on benches are shiftable.

Jan 1, 1976

By John McDonald

THIS report is a continuation of an earlier one with a similar title,1 to which the reader is referred for such details of procedure as do not appear here. A brief summary will be given of the objects and methods of the research at this time. It was pointed out in the previous paper that properties of magnesium alloys, as re-ported by different workers, often differ. This was thought to be due to differences in the preparation of the specimens tested. The ideal way to compare alloys would be to prepare each of them in so many ways that reasonable assurance would exist that the best properties of each alloy had been developed. The alloys would then be com-pared on the basis of these properties. The treatment actually given the alloys of these studies is necessarily a compromise with completeness. Nevertheless, enough treatments have been given so that a con-siderable degree of assurance exists that the properties obtained are representative of the alloy as such, and not merely of the manner in which it was worked and heat-treated.

Jan 1, 1940

By E. A. Nesbitt

A new permanent-magnet material has been developed with unusual mechanical as well as magnetic properties. Specimens that have been cast or subjected to a small amount of hot reduction by rolling or swaging may be machined, punched, tapped or drilled. The composition range of the alloys is 30 to 52 per cent iron, 36 to 62 per cent cobalt and 4 to 16 per cent vanadium. After being either quenched, annealed or given the usual cold finishing passes and then heated for 2 hr. at 600°C., such materials have a magnetic energy product of 1.0 X 106 gauss-oersteds. This product is equivalent to that of the well-known Honda steel (36 per cent Co, 4W, 2 Cr, 0.8 C. 0.3 Mn, balance Fe). Material handled in the manner just described does not depend on cold-working for its magnetic properties, and is known as Vicalloy I. The preferred composition for Vicalloy I is 38.5 per cent iron, 52 per cent cobalt and 9.5 per cent vanadium. When the alloys are first hot-worked, then considerably reduced in area by cold-swaging, drawing or groove rolling and then heat-treated, the magnetic energy product measured in the direction of previous extension is increased to 2.0 to 3.5 X 106 gauss-oersteds. These higher values have been obtained only after cold reductions in area of 75 to 95 per cent. Material handled in this manner is known as Vicalloy II and the preferred composi-

Jan 1, 1947

By E. A. Nesbitt

A new permanent-magnet material has been developed with unusual mechanical as well as magnetic properties. Specimens that have been cast or subjected to a small amount of hot reduction by rolling or swaging may be machined, punched, tapped or drilled. The composition range of the alloys is 30 to 52 per cent iron, 36 to 62 per cent cobalt and 4 to 16 per cent vanadium. After being either quenched, annealed or given the usual cold finishing passes and then heated for 2 hr. at 600°C., such materials have a magnetic energy product of 1.0 X 106 gauss-oersteds. This product is equivalent to that of the well-known Honda steel (36 per cent Co, 4W, 2 Cr, 0.8 C. 0.3 Mn, balance Fe). Material handled in the manner just described does not depend on cold-working for its magnetic properties, and is known as Vicalloy I. The preferred composition for Vicalloy I is 38.5 per cent iron, 52 per cent cobalt and 9.5 per cent vanadium. When the alloys are first hot-worked, then considerably reduced in area by cold-swaging, drawing or groove rolling and then heat-treated, the magnetic energy product measured in the direction of previous extension is increased to 2.0 to 3.5 X 106 gauss-oersteds. These higher values have been obtained only after cold reductions in area of 75 to 95 per cent. Material handled in this manner is known as Vicalloy II and the preferred composi-

Jan 1, 1947