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By Pekka Taskinen

Advanced optimizing control of the fluidised bed zinc roaster has been in use for an extended period at Boliden Kokkola and the implications are seen as extended bed stability, increased throughput and far better on-line availability. The roaster furnace control system developed is based on a dynamic and predictive furnace model, with parameters determined experimentally at the site. The controller maximises the concentrate feed and keeps the furnace operational parameters inside limits given by raw material mix and equipment constraints. The products of a zinc roaster, calcine, sulphur dioxide and the side products, such as mercury, meet gradually more stringent requirements, in particular as to their assays and total recoveries in the process chain. The end users of sulphuric acid in northern Europe, among others in the pulp and paper industry, require mercury levels much less than the conventional 0.2-0.4 ppm Hg. Therefore, secondary de-mercurising circuits have been used over the last five years for further cleaning the SO2 stream allowing production acid grades with less than 0.08 ppm Hg.

Jan 1, 2008

By J. Kraemer, A. Preusse

In the federal state of North Rhine Westphalia (Germany) small and medium sized companies are beginning to extract the related gas via old shafts or boreholes and to use it as a source for the production of electricity and heat. More than 100 applications for the separate mining right on mine gas had already been filed by beginning of 2002, since mine gas is treated as a mineral resource under the Federal Mining Law. Meanwhile more than 40 mine gas concessions have been granted and first projects are being developed with encouraging results so far. To enhance the applied techniques and their efficiency Aachen University has formed a research team in this discipline. Scope and goals of this research activities are being presented in this paper. Keywords: extraction mine gas, Renewable Energy Act, Ruhr District.

Jan 1, 2003

By A. N. Clay

In recent times, there has been criticism of the minerals industry over the lack of quantifiable boundaries between inferred, indicated, and Measured resources. A recent initiative through the United Nations aims to try to converge the mineral resource classification systems. Since the oil and gas industry uses a probabilistic approach to defining reserve boundaries, it is appropriate to introduce a similar statistical methodology for minerals. The Venmyn Variance Tower has been developed based upon traditional statistics to utilize historical and ongoing information in order to quantify variance of geological and chemical parameters and the boundaries and logic for quantitative mineral resource classification. It is proposed that a less than 50% variance from the mean of all sample parameters is required to achieve the classification threshold to define an inferred Resource whereas between 20-10% is needed for an indicated Resource and less than 10% variance from the mean is needed to declare a Measured Resource. These limits are similar to those used by the oil and gas industry, and it is suggested that these thresholds be adopted as an industry standard to ensure consistent quantitative reporting. While this process is intended to use statistics of an orebody to provide quantifiable and defendable boundaries, it cannot be carried out unless the geology of the mineral deposit is understood and the borehole samples can be categorized into appropriate populations for which the statistics are valid. This means that competent geologists are always required to work with and understand the implications of the Variance Tower results. This paper is intended to form the basis of a series of publications that establish a process to take mineral projects along a quantifiable and logical development path. Hence, no specific field example of the practical application of this process is given here.

Jan 1, 2012

By Gaspard Devos

1. A NEW CONTEXT FOR METAL INDUSTRY Producers and owners of industrial extractive sites are living hard times due to Environmental pressure and liabilities. This is valid whatever the region in the world, it is just a question of time. On one hand, the normative environmental pressure is increasing through more severe regulations and controls on all pollution sources and production materials. [ ] Furthermore, more impurities are extracted and captured, more the volume of the related wastes is increasing. But disposal costs are increasing, disposal areas for wastes are restricted, markets for wastes are limited and technologies for waste treatment are, most of the time, not available. On the other hand, for most of the extractive industries, the costs required to get access to refine primary raw material are killing the profitability of the industry. Definitively, a technological and economical breakthrough is ongoing: extractive industries have to increase their feed from secondary material and to be involved more and more with the recycling business.

Jan 1, 2005

By D. S. van Vuuren

Titanium bearing resources can selectively be chlorinated at temperatures below 200°C if the Ti02 in the feed is nitrided before chlorination. However, the nitriding reaction is highly endothermic, requires highly reducing conditions, is only thermodynamically favourable at elevated temperatures, and is affected by mass and heat transfer restrictions. At the required processing conditions, problems might also be experienced with sintering and with melting of slag forming components in the raw materials. A test programme was undertaken to study the effects of raw material type, temperature, gas composition, bed depth, carbon to raw material ratio and residence time in order to simulate conditions required for scaling up a nitriding process. In contrast to previous experience with low-grade titanium-bearing slag containing about 30% Ti02, ilmenite and chlorinateable slag do not form melting phases under the studied nitriding conditions and hardly sintered at all. Both feed materials can readily be nitrided with conversions in excess of 90% at temperatures around 1300°C and using bituminous coal as reducing agent with fixed carbon in excess of 1.1 times the stoichiometric requirement. The conversion decreases as the bed depth of the feed material increases and the N2/CO ratio in the gas decreases. Analysis of the relative rates of mass and heat transfer into the reacting beds of ilmenite and slag showed that the heat transfer rates are more limiting than the mass transfer rates. In order to increase the throughput that can be achieved in a kiln, it would be necessary to take special measures to enhance the heat transfer rates into the mass of reacting material. One such a measure is to pre-form the mass of reacting material into thin-walled, hollow brick shapes prior to introducing it into a kiln. Depending on bed depth, temperature and N2/CO ratio, required residence times in the high temperature zone of the kiln can vary between about 6 and 10 hours. Keywords Titanium dioxide, titanium nitride, carbo-thermic, reduction, ilmenite, slag, tunnel kiln, residence time.

Jan 1, 2011

By A. Whillier

Note: Hydraulic rock drills and their effect on the underground environment by A. WHILLIER, Pr. Eng Se. D., (M.tT.) (Fellow) In any situation where hydraulic rockdrills are used underground, it is evident that an amount of heat equivalent to the total electric input to the power pack would enter the ventilation air. Book review Australian Mineral Industry 1972 Review. Australia, Department of Minerals and Energy. NIM report Report no. 1691 The determination of zirconium and aluminium by 14MeV neutronactivation analysis. Automation in Mining, Mineral, and Metal Processing The International Federation of Automatic Control (IF AC) is to hold its second symposium on the above subject in Johannesburg on 13th to 17th September, 1976. V Simposio de Mineracao A symposium is being arranged for 6th to 9th August, 1975, in Ouro Preto, Brazil. ACHEMA 1976 The 18th Chcmical Engineering Exhibition-Congress and European Meeting of Chemical Engineering will be held in Frankfurt from 20th to 26th June, 1976, and thc Chemical Engineering World Congress Sixth Underwater Mining Institute The above Institute will be held on the main campus of the University of Wisconsin in Madison, U.S.A., on 2nd and 3rd October, 1975.

Jan 4, 1975

By U. Weber

The effect of grinding media performance on milling and operational behaviour was demonstrated under different selected conditions of calcium carbonate slurry milling. A variety of grinding media materials and bead sizes, along with two different stirrer tip speeds, were used in the grinding process to generate a particle size reduction of the calcium carbonate (CaCO3). To determine the optimum milling parameters the collected test data were used to calculate and evaluate specific energy as well as stress intensity under different milling conditions. Keywords: Grinding, mill media, high energy mills, industrial minerals, precious metals.

Jan 1, 2010

By J. Daraisme

Société le Nickel (SLN) exploits the Dôme lateritic nickel orebody at its Tiébaghi operations in New Caledonia. The site geology has an obvious bearing on recovery and metallurgical performance, and the controls are extremely complex at all scales: lithology, oxidation-reduction conditions, mineralogy, and multivariate geochemistry. In that context, establishing an adapted recoverable resource estimation method that is efficient and transparent proves an interesting challenge. The method must address the key notions of: ? Support effect: the exploration data-set can only warrant the estimation of large panels 20×20×3 m3, which are much larger than the selective mining units (SMUs) of 5×5×3 m3 ? Information effect: the selection at production stage uses estimates based on information much denser than that available for mine planning. The problem is rendered more complex in this type of deposit by the fact that the additive variables used for any estimation process (metal accumulation and ore tonnage) are not the ones used to establish the selection at mining stage (i.e. the nickel grade of SMUs, which is the ratio of accumulation on tonnage). Eventually, the selection criteria involve not only Ni grades but also other constituents such as Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, and SiO2. The solution presented in this paper is the construction of a platform of SMU multivariate simulations in the saprolitic horizon, together with efficient post-processing aimed at producing the multivariate recoverable resource estimates. The efficiency constraints imposed by the number of blocks to be simulated (1.5 million) lead to resorting to direct block simulations. The underlying multivariate discrete Gaussian model (DGM), the validity of which is tested beforehand, is put to good use to mimic the selection process at the mining stage, by offering the ability to simulate in each block a composite value located at random within the block. Finally, the paper presents the application of a scenario reduction algorithm to pick a representative subset of a few simulations to help appraise the risk attached to the downstream phases (reserve optimization, mine sequencing) of the project. The implementation presented here is for the first generation of the Scenario Reduction plugin built in Isatis software, where measuring the distance between the initial set of scenarios and the reduced set is based on Ni quantities only. Research is under way to adapt the measure to the true multivariate nature of the problem.

Jan 1, 2014

By F. -Z. Ji, A. G. Irons, M. Barati, K. Coley

In order to optimize carbon injection into oxidizing slags, in terms of carbon and iron yield, we must have a detailed understanding of the kinetics of the reactions involved. The current study measures the rate of carbon oxidation during injection at steelmaking temperature by means of injections of coal into EAF slags. The compositions of analysed outgoing gas were used to calculate gas flow rate and hence the gasification rate of carbon. A fundamental equation to predict residual carbon in slags was developed. The predictions using this model at moderate injection rates are in good agreement with experimental data. The reaction rate of EAF slag with carbon is under mixed control by the slag gas and the gas carbon reactions. The relative importance of each step depends mainly on the v-ratio of slags. A relative reactivity parameter ? has been defined and it is found to be important to carbon-slag reaction kinetics and slag foaming. Key words: carbon-slag reaction, kinetics, slag foaming.

Jan 1, 2004

By Willem Le Roux

Occupational health and safety is regulated by statute and common law. South Africa has, like many other countries, legislated extensively on occupational health and safety. Despite the body of legislation, the common law continues to play an important role as far as it concerns contractual, delictual and criminal liability. Two major Acts regulate occupational health and safety viz. the Occupational Health and Safety Act, No. 85 of 1993 (?OHASA?) and the Mine Health and Safety Act, No. 29 of 1996 (?MHSA?). The MHSA applies to mines and works as defined and related aspects. OHASA applies to other industries but does not apply to employers and workplaces to which the MHSA and certain matters covered by the Merchant Shipping Act, No. 57 of 1951 apply. See section 1(3) of OHASA. 2 The employer?s health and safety obligations in terms of the MHSA 2.1 Section 2(1) of the MHSA provides amongst others, as follows: ?The employer of every mine that is being worked must: (a) ensure, as far as reasonably practicable, that the mine is designed, constructed and equipped: (i) to provide conditions for safe operation and a healthy working environment (ii) ... (b) ensure, as far as reasonably practicable, that the mine is commissioned, operated, maintained and decommissioned in such away that employees can perform their work without endangering the health and safety of themselves or of any other person?.

Jan 1, 2011

By D. P. Roberts

The stoping of platinum orebodies in the Bushveld has in the past been accomplished by using in-stope pillars to ensure stability of the workings. In the future, the use of continuous mining machines to mine the platinum orebodies is probable. It is not envisaged that such machines will cut in-stope pillars. This paper describes the alternative support systems that will replace the pillars and the stope geometries that will be required for this type of mining. The paper describes how the support resistance provided by in-stope pillars in current mining was determined and then evaluates support systems that can substitute for these pillars. Conceptual layouts based on existing breast mining layouts are presented. The layouts consist of panels of up to 100 m face length between rigid strike stabilizing pillars. A number of design charts are then proposed that allow for the design of appropriate support systems.

Jan 1, 2005

By E. S. Peters, M. J. van Rensburg, M. Le Roux, Q. P. Campbell

"The demand for energy has continued to rise worldwide in line with population growth. The majority of South Africa’s electricity is supplied by coal-fired power stations. The amount of fine coal (-2 mm) generated at coal processing plants has increased, due mainly to mechanized mining methods. Fine coal retains more water, which lowers its heating value.Drying the coal is costly and it is difficult to achieve the required moisture content. Consequently, coal fines are often discarded. An estimated 8% of the total energy value of mined coal is lost1.Fluidized bed technology is often used to dry coal thermally, but this method is expensive and has an adverse environmental impact. The objective of this study was to investigate the removal of moisture from fine coal (<2 mm) in a fluidized bed operated with dry fluidizing air at moderate temperatures as the drying agent. The effects of different air temperatures and relative humidity levels were investigated in a controlled environment. The study further investigated the influence of coal particle size on moisture removal.The drying rate was found to increase with increasing temperature. The relative humidity of the drying air had a more pronounced effect on the drying rate, even at temperatures as low as 25°C.. It became more challenging to remove moisture as the particle size decreased. The gain in calorific value was greater than the energy required to dry the coal samples, showing that a fluidized bed using moderately warm dry air is an energy-efficient drying technology. The energy efficiency of the fluidized bed compared favourably with other thermal drying methods.Paper written on project work carried out in partial fulfilment of Degree in Chemical Engineering(NWU) - Pursuing Masters in Coal Beneficiation"

Jan 1, 2015

By P Papanastasiou, J Hadjigeorgiou, E Kyriakou

The south west area of Cyprus has a long history of slope instability problems. The location and extent of these landslides has been influenced by ground morphology, geological structure and the presence of weak rocks and cohesive soils. The main triggering mechanisms have been precipitation and/or seismic events. Landslides have contributed to the decision to relocate villages and considerable efforts have been put into maintaining the integrity of the local transportation network. This paper uses a recent case study of road embankment failure near Pentalia in southwest Cyprus to review the available tools for the analysis of slope instability. It further demonstrates how the shear strength reduction technique can be used in a finite element analysis to better visualise the slope instability mechanism of a road embankment and provide a reliable tool in selecting appropriate remedial measures.

Jan 1, 2006

By R. Falcon, P. den Hoed, A. Luckos, R. Erasmus, V. du Cann, D. Comins

Carbon as a reductant, additive or filler is an essential element in the processing of metallic ores and the manufacture of iron and steel in the metallurgical industry. In most cases, the element carbon is derived from coal and its carbon derivatives. The properties of carbon required for the different processes in each metallurgical sector vary significantly and, for this reason, matching the correct carbon product for each specific process has become an important if not vital function in all sectors of this industry. This selection process, however, has become increasingly difficult. In many cases, the substitution of new products, despite being similar in all relevant chemical specification characteristics to previous products, has resulted in different performance properties relative to that expected. Under these circumstances, the prediction of performance of unknown carbon products has become fraught with difficulties unprecedented in the past. In order to initiate an investigation into addressing these issues, a test case was selected for indepth study the results of which are reported in this paper. The case concerned the use of a specific carbon feed in a conventional submerged arc furnace which gave rise to an unprecedented amount of unreacted or only partially consumed residue trapped in the frozen slag on the refractory walls of the furnace. During the course of these investigations, different advanced analytical technologies were employed including, inter alia, Raman spectroscopy, surface dimensional tests, organic petrology and various thermal reactivity factors. All results have been integrated into a multidisciplinary assessment presented in summary in this paper. Based on the above, and previous experience, the concept of an all-embracing 3-D coal-carbon ?framework? is briefly introduced. This approach has succeeded in obtaining greater depth of knowledge and a better understanding of the issues at stake with specific reference to the organic composition, structure, texture, internal surface area and consequent reactivity of the carbon materials concerned. In consequence, it would now appear that various properties of relevance to the metallurgical industry may be predicted with greater precision than has hitherto fore been possible.

Jan 1, 2004

By B. Genc

"The risk of spontaneous combustion is well known in the South African coal mining industry. In the coming years it is very possible that the incidence of spontaneous combustion will increase from current levels, due to factors such as an increased rate of mining, re-working of previously mined seams, more stooping and total extraction for underground mines, and higher stripping ratios for surface mines, leading to more spoils. It is also fairly certain that coal mining will face tougher environmental emissions legislation in the near future. To determine the areas where the risks of spontaneous combustion are high, it is necessary to improve on our current laboratory procedures for testing and evaluating coal samples, combining the results with site and field data, and if necessary revising the laboratory rating system to refine our understanding of South African conditions.Currently, laboratory tests are conducted in order to determine both the Wits-EHAC index and the crossing-point temperature which, when combined, give an indication of the spontaneous combustion propensities of the coal samples. This procedure has enabled the establishment of a database of results to review and evaluate South African coal seams. Using this database, the high-risk areas in terms of spontaneous combustion are identified. Tests have been undertaken for five consecutive years, between 2008 and 2012. In total, 119 coal samples from different coal seams and production coalfields have been analysed and classified through a series of laboratory tests. A comprehensive database of these results is available, and is continually being updated as new test results are added. This database will continue to expand, and to provide the basis for an improved risk evaluation methodology for spontaneous combustion"

Jan 1, 2015

By Q. G. Reynolds

The presence of dust and fume suspended in the freeboard region is a common feature of the operation of direct current (DC) plasma smelting furnaces. This occurs primarily as a result of the use of fine feed materials together with the open-arc, open-bath operation of such smelters, and is exacerbated by the high velocities and turbulent mixing of the gas in the vicinity of the arc jet. Dust and fume losses into the furnace off-gas system can be significant in some cases and may have economic, operational, and environmental impacts on the process. A computational modelling study is presented in which the concentration of dust material was considered as a continuous field subject to a governing partial differential equation. Settling behaviour was calculated as a function of particle size, local gas/plasma temperature, and other physical properties. Development of the coupling between the concentration field and a magnetohydrodynamic description of the arc is shown, and the resulting models were used to compute various aspects of the behaviour of the concentration field in the arc region for a variety of furnace conditions. Time-averaged as well as transient models of the arc were used to generate the results presented. Qualitative case studies produced several practical suggestions for furnace operation, including increased dust capture by the bath when feed ports are located closer to the electrode, and the possible effects of feed segregation in the furnace freeboard based on dust particle size and density.

Jan 1, 2015

By S. Thorley

In engineering design of operator?s compartments, in underground mining equipment, ergonomics principles are often neglected or not given the full recognition they deserve. This paper defines ergonomics, applies it to machinery in an underground mining environment and describes the ergonomics analysis undertaken during the design phase of an EJC extra-low-profile mining loader. Encompassing the design of the operator?s compartment of this new loader, this paper illustrates the importance of ergonomics principles within the collective design process, ensuring that it is fully integrated into the design approach. An ultimate aim of this study is to ensure that all future designs follow this route to guarantee not only the outcome of a highly efficient, cost-effective and productive machine but that it is also takes the human factor into account, not only in maintenance but also in operation. Maximizing comfort will have the ultimate outcome of actually increasing productivity.

Jan 1, 2006

By E. Ringdalen

Keywords: Pyrometallurgy, research, Norway, SINTEF, NTNU The Norwegian Ferro-alloy Industry and the model for research cooperation between SINTEF, NTNU, and the Norwegian ferro-alloy industry is presented as an introduction. The research within pyrometallurgy is illustrated by examples from characterisation of Mn-ores and characterisation of carbon materials. Examples from studies of reaction mechanisms in laboratory- and pilot-scale experiments are presented, in addition to an example of industrial off-gas measurements. Education possibilities at NTNU are also described.

Jan 1, 2011

The compilation of the sampling nomogram is an essential tool in the optimization of a sampling protocol and allows the operator to track the change in relative variance of the sampling error (the Fundamental sampling error) during steps of comminution and mass reduction in the process of recovery of the aliquot for analysis. The data required for the compilation of the nomogram are centred on the sampling constant K and the exponent, alpha (a) of the nominal fragment size. Five methods for establishing K have been identified, but two of them, the duplicate sampling analysis method and the heterogeneity test method purport to provide such constant. The step by step procedure for each of these two methods was examined using broken ores from three mines, Mponeng mine, Kloof mine, and Lily mine. Two of these mines (Mponeng and Kloof) are typical Witwatersrand-type gold mines, and the third is an Archaean-type shear related gold deposit situated in the Barberton Greenstone belt. The results suggest that the factor K derived using the heterogeneity test is very accurate, but applies only to a single size fraction in the spectrum of comminuted materials. The calculation of gold grain sizes using this method appear to be too small and do not conform with the results from detailed mineralogical studies. The factors K and alpha derived using the duplicate series analysis are appropriate for use across a wide spectrum of comminution sizes and also provide realistic gold grain sizes, comparable with the equivalent circular diameter of gold grains identified in mineralogical studies of the ores.

Jan 1, 2010

Phase equilibria have been determined experimentally for pseudo-ternary sections of the form ?MnO?-(CaO+MgO)-(SiO2+Al2O3) with a fixed Al2O3/SiO2 weight ratio of 0.17 and MgO/CaO weight ratios of 0.25 and 0.17 respectively for temperatures in the range 1473-1673 K. The primary phase fields present for the MgO/CaO weight ratio of 0.17 include manganosite (Mn,Mg,Ca)O; dicalcium silicate a-2(Ca,Mg,Mn)O?SiO2; merwinite 3CaO·(Mg,Mn)O·2SiO2; wollastonite [(Ca,Mg,Mn)O?SiO2]; diopside [(CaO,MgO,MnO,Al2O3)?SiO2]; tridymite (SiO2); tephroite [2(Mn,Mg)O?SiO2]; rhodonite [(Mn,Mg)O?SiO2] and melilite [2CaO?(MgO,MnO,Al2O3)?2(SiO2,Al2O3)]. For the section with MgO/CaO weight ratio of 0.25 the anorthite phase (CaO·Al2O3·2SiO2) is also present. The liquidus temperatures of ferro- and silico-manganese smelting slags have been determined. The liquidus temperatures at low MnO concentrations are shown to be principally dependent on the modified basicity weight ratio (CaO+MgO)/(SiO2+Al2O3).

Jan 1, 2004