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JAN. 17-In what appears to be a general spirit of post-Christmas emotional malaise, most adult Americans have bidden farewell to the Forties and turned with no perceptible enthusiasm toward the Fifties. The dying decade had started amid a phoney war which verged on the romantic, stirred the pulse with excitement and seemed far away. A phoney peace dominates the new decade. The romance is no longer there. Nor is the excitement. Nor is the distance. While most of the world preferred to be chronologically correct and hold off for another year before celebrating the demise of the first half of the twentieth century, the United States with true competitive enterprise and a great whirl of words scurried into the second half a year early. This undue haste might perhaps have been dictated unconsciously by a yearning for the pattern of history to be repeated. For many centuries, ever since Roman times, the second half of most centuries tended to be far more tranquil than the first half. In Washington, Mr. Truman got on both sides of the mid-century line with all the aplomb of a good politician. He told Congress early in January that "the state of the Union continues to be good," as it nears "the midpoint of the twentieth century." Later he spoke of moving forward into the second half of the century. He promised an infinitely better life for everyone, whichever side of the mid-century line, and reaffirmed his prescription toward that end: assistance for small businesses; more houses for the middle-income groups; tougher anti-monopoly laws, retention of rent controls; development of natural resources; better insurance against the hazards of old age, idleness and unemployment; better medical care and education, civil rights legislation; new labor relations law and production payments to support farm incomes. All this was to be coupled with suggestions on how to balance the budget. The bloody and confusing 1940's had brought to most men's minds a fear of the future such as they had not known for centuries, and Mr. Truman's objective is to temper that fear. Only time will tell whether the terminal point of such a philosophy would or would not belie the old English proverb citing inability to both eat and have a cake. Brave words to the contrary, the national budget persisted in sliding off into the red. The smell of further inflation was equally persistent. And just to impart a little more zip to the trend, the American Federation of Labor announced its intention of seeking "substantial" and "large" wage increases this year. The AFL forewarns of a business slump after June and a 10¢ an hr wage in¬crease for each worker "will be enough to reverse the prospective downward trend and start a rise." Thus it goes-"the way to halt a drop in demand for labor is to raise the price of labor." Elsewhere in the harassed world, beleagured individualists in New York achieved a local triumph of sorts for one of the freedoms denied by the Soviet and Nazi systems-the right of escape, some escape at least, from the servitude to decibels. Grand Central Station weakened perceptibly at Christmas on its 5-min commercials and bore down heavily on "Hark, The Herald Angels Sing," and on New Year's Day capitulated entirely by abandoning the broadcasting of canned music and slugs of advertising slogans. In Europe, M. Bidault's Assembly majority fell away and newspaper accounts of the incredible monstrosities of political trials beyond the iron curtain were supplanted by headlines marking the birth of Princess Yasmin. The latter was surrounded by Byzantine splendor but otherwise showed no apparent deviation from the accepted norm. In Western Germany, Dr. Adenauer began to speak up more boldly, and the whole fabric of Allied policy towards the defeated enemy further dossolved under the impact of rivalry with the Russians. In the Far East both the Americans and British seem somewhat embarrassed by Chiang Kai-shek's refusal to lie down. Dual thinking regarding the "squalid and useless struggle in the China seas" is such that newspapers give sympathetic accounts to an American ship running supplies to the Communists at Shanghai while calling for help for the recognized Chinese government in Formosa. And with Britain recognizing Communist China they may well have to team up with Russia against the United States to kick the Chinese representative off the UNO Security Council, the Far Eastern Commission and the Allied Council in Tokyo. Far Eastern policy has never been a bipartisan matter and as General Chiang retreated to his final redoubts in Formosa and Hainan, a number of Republicans pecked away at Administration lassitude. Senator Smith advocated the occupation of Formosa and Messrs. Hoover and Taft asked for use of the Navy. Mr. Acheson has stood firm, however, against military aid. None the less, a study will be made of the Generalissimo's chances. Mr. Truman has a private purse of $75 million for the Far East and some $94 million in frozen ECA funds. Mr. Truman will likely trade some of this money for support of new Marshall plan appropriations, always mindful, of course, of Mr. Acheson's plan to drive a wedge between the Chinese and Moscow, and his wish to avoid any revival of imperialist nightmares throughout the Orient. Mr. Acheson is very convinced that the victories of Communism in China will be short-lived and South Asia will not fall

Jan 2, 1950

By Cloyd M. Smith

A few years ago, the Ventilation Committee established the practice of resenting one topic each year for discussion at the annual meeting. The practice has met good response on the part of committee members and I suggest that it be continued. The topic chosen for this year, "Underground Anemometry," is a topic which has bothered me for more than 20 years. It seems to me that the coal industry is content to rely on slipshod methods for measuring the rate of flow of air underground, so I prefaced my discussional charge to committee members with the statement that I regard air measnrements made in the usual way, with hand held anemometer, as no good. Agreements and disagreements came in from more than a dozen engineers, some of whom are with operating companies, coal and metal; some with manufacturers; others with government agencies. The statement was accompanied by a questionnaire on the use of the rotating vane anemometer and by one describing two methods of using a mechanically held anemometer. The questionnaire will be considered first. The questionnaire and statement are as shown on pages 5 and 6, the committee members and respondents are given on page 4, and the general comments of the latter on page 5. Questionnaire 1. Has your company or agency issued written instructions for care and use of anemometers? If so, please enclose a copy with reply. Only one answer, McElroy's, was affirmative. It gave reference to Bureau of Mines publications1'5 which recom- mend the hand held anemometer for rough measurements and indicate that am accuracy of 5 pct can be had if calibration and method factors are used. Mathews said that instructions are principally oral while Maize reported that state inspectors of his department are well trained in use and care of anemometers. 2. Are your anemometers calibrated periodically? If so, by their manufacturer? or by? Are calibralion corrections applied to all observed mean velocity readings? Only one respondent, Lee, answered negatively as to calibration. This means that anemometers are generally calibrated but the questionnaire failed to ask how often this is done. As no one volunteered the information, we have no data on this point. In six cases the instruments are sent to their manufacturers for calibration. but Krickovic reports that his company limits manu-facturers' calibrations to anemometers which are used by operating personnel; those used by the engineering department being calibrated by U. S. Bureau of Standards. The Anaconda Copper Mining Co. has its ventilation engineers calibrate its anemometers. Most of the respondents say that a calibration correction is applied to each mean velocity reading, but Krickovic limits this to surveys made by the engineering department. Since Lee does not calibrate, he has no correction to apply. Maize reports that his department has its anemometers calibrated but does not apply corrections. 3. Do your men hold the anemometer by hand in measuring air flow? for 1 min? or traverse the section? for 1 min? or at? points for 5 sec each? Of 10 replies, 6 were "yes," 3 were "no," and one was "seldom" with respect to holding by hand. Among the six hand holders, four hold in a central position in the measuring section for a minute, except that two of them, Krickovic and Matthews, traverse the section by hand for survey or fan test. Their operating personnel hold by hand, centrally, for routine measurements. McElroy sometimes traverses with hand-held anemometer in rapid survey work. 4. If the anemometer is not held by hand, how is it supported? Augustadt supports the anemometer on an adjustable rod, Condon on "a rod of sufficient length to reach all points with observer standing in one position throughout traverse and at arm's length from plane of traverse." I presume that arm's length must be interpreted liberally enough to allow for arm movement, otherwise it would be impossible to manipulate the anemometer throughout the traverse section. Mancha upholds Condon in this method of traversing. Glanville hangs the anemometer on the end of a 4-ft staff by the hasp at the top of the anemometer frame. McElroy mounts it on the end of a rigid square shaft, 12 in. long, the staff being at right angles to the axis of the instrument. He traverses the section in two halves, holding the anemometer 3 feet from his body.

Jan 1, 1950

By C. McLean, Erickson, S. G. Kolb, S. C. Moore

The Grossschloppen vein-uranium deposit, Bavaria, West Germany, was examined with underground workings during 1980-82 by Esso Erz GmbH, an affiliate of Exxon Minerals Company (EMC). Geologic evaluation entailed dense drilling of a portion of the deposit from workings constructed specifically for the program. Discovered in 1977, the deposit was initially explored by surface diamond drillholes which allowed definition of a 30-60 m wide vein system discontinuously mineralized along a 1000 m strike length and to at least a 450 m depth. The underground program was conceives as a cost-effective procedure to answer quest ions on vein correlation, grade continuity and variability. A 1200 m decline allowed access for detailed sampling of approximately 10% of the known area of mineralization. Fanned drillholes, logged by gamma probe, were spaced to provide intersections of veins at 10 to 20 m intervals. Six cross-cuts also penetrate the pitchblende and uranophane mineralization which occurs in 0.1 to 2.5 m thick quartz veins. Detailed cross-sections and level plans were constructed for resource estimates of the intensively studied portion of the vein system. The program resulted in the discovery of local, high grade areas and an average grade in the evaluated area nearly double that expected from surface drilling.

Jan 1, 1984

By J. N. Breston, R. V. Hughes

Conclusions drawn by previous research workers with reSPect to the relation between Pressure gradients and/or velocity and oil recovery obtained by laboratory water flood tests have been in disagreement probably due to variable procedures and unnatural conditions and materials. The Bradford Laboratory of the Pennsylvania Grade Crude Oil Association as part of its secondary recovery research program has conducted nineteen water floods on two long cores of widely differing characteristics in an attempt to clarify this relationship and make it an aid in predicting flooding pressures in the field. Unlike previous research procedures the present experiments were conducted with the aim of duplicating field conditions as closely as possible by using long unextracted consolidated cores, a live crude, and natural brines for both flooding and, connate water content. Also, the pressure gradients and flooding velocities were representative of field conditions where similar sands were being flooded. Eleven floods on one core and eight floods on the other core showed increased recoveries and lower residual oil saturation with increased flood pressure gradients and flood velocities. A marked decrease in recovery was obtained from both cores at very low flood velocities. This pressure versus recovery relationship is shown to hold up to the point of water breakthrough and also up to the 100 and 1 produced water to oil ratio point. INTRODUCTION The possibility of water flooding oil sands was suggested by Carl1 of the Pennsylvania Geological Survey in 1880. It is not known when the practice was tried intentionally for the first time, but its beneficial effects were noted in the annual production rate of the Bradford field as early as 1907. The practice was illegal in Pennsylvania until 1921. Early water floods in the Bradford field usually consisted of shooting or splitting the casing secretly to permit subsurface waters to enter the producing sands under hydrostatic head. As it was noted that the benefits of water flooding seemed to be proportional to the quantity of water dumped into the well many also began to utilize surface sources after the practice became legal. It was probably during the middle 20's before many producers realized that the pressurehead of the water upon the producing sand determined the rate and quantity of water that would enter the sand. Hence, rate and quantity of production appeared to be a direct function of input pressures. By 1927 a few producers had ventured the installation of pressure pumps in order to increase water-input rates and production through the combination of hydrostatic and hydraulic pressures. The adoption of pressure flooding and the "five-spot" drilling pattern in the Bradford field were essentially simultaneous. Water-input pressures in 1930 seldom exceeded 300 p.s.i. at the well head or 1100 p.s.i. at the sand face. Since that time, water-flood producers in the Bradford-Allegany fields have gone to higher and higher pressure until today 600 p.s.i. at the well heads is called a low pressure flood. Many high pressure floods now operate at 1300-1400 p.s.i. at the well head. The limiting and advisable pressure at the sand face has been pronounced as that pressure just under what is required to lift the overburden or to cause formation parting: According to this rule any water flood operation utilizing well-head pressures nearly equal in pounds per sq. in. to 1.1 times the average depth in feet to the top of the producing sand would be considered as a high-pressure flood. Despite the higher pressure trends in the Bradford-Allegany field operations and the results of early laboratory water flooding research, the desirability and benefits of high input pressures are still questioned by many operators, particularly in midwestern water flood operations. The present paper recounts a series of 19 laboratory water floods using two long, consolidated cores of widely differing characteristics saturated with live crude and flooded with oil field brines in an effort to simulate field conditions under • various pressure gradients and flooding velocities. For both cores, higher recoveries and lower residual oil saturations were obtained at higher pressure gradients and flood velocities. This relationship is shown to hold up to the water breakthrough point and also up to the 100 to 1 produced water to oil ratio point.

Jan 1, 1949

By R. V. Hughes, J. N. Breston

Conclusions drawn by previous research workers with reSPect to the relation between Pressure gradients and/or velocity and oil recovery obtained by laboratory water flood tests have been in disagreement probably due to variable procedures and unnatural conditions and materials. The Bradford Laboratory of the Pennsylvania Grade Crude Oil Association as part of its secondary recovery research program has conducted nineteen water floods on two long cores of widely differing characteristics in an attempt to clarify this relationship and make it an aid in predicting flooding pressures in the field. Unlike previous research procedures the present experiments were conducted with the aim of duplicating field conditions as closely as possible by using long unextracted consolidated cores, a live crude, and natural brines for both flooding and, connate water content. Also, the pressure gradients and flooding velocities were representative of field conditions where similar sands were being flooded. Eleven floods on one core and eight floods on the other core showed increased recoveries and lower residual oil saturation with increased flood pressure gradients and flood velocities. A marked decrease in recovery was obtained from both cores at very low flood velocities. This pressure versus recovery relationship is shown to hold up to the point of water breakthrough and also up to the 100 and 1 produced water to oil ratio point. INTRODUCTION The possibility of water flooding oil sands was suggested by Carl1 of the Pennsylvania Geological Survey in 1880. It is not known when the practice was tried intentionally for the first time, but its beneficial effects were noted in the annual production rate of the Bradford field as early as 1907. The practice was illegal in Pennsylvania until 1921. Early water floods in the Bradford field usually consisted of shooting or splitting the casing secretly to permit subsurface waters to enter the producing sands under hydrostatic head. As it was noted that the benefits of water flooding seemed to be proportional to the quantity of water dumped into the well many also began to utilize surface sources after the practice became legal. It was probably during the middle 20's before many producers realized that the pressurehead of the water upon the producing sand determined the rate and quantity of water that would enter the sand. Hence, rate and quantity of production appeared to be a direct function of input pressures. By 1927 a few producers had ventured the installation of pressure pumps in order to increase water-input rates and production through the combination of hydrostatic and hydraulic pressures. The adoption of pressure flooding and the "five-spot" drilling pattern in the Bradford field were essentially simultaneous. Water-input pressures in 1930 seldom exceeded 300 p.s.i. at the well head or 1100 p.s.i. at the sand face. Since that time, water-flood producers in the Bradford-Allegany fields have gone to higher and higher pressure until today 600 p.s.i. at the well heads is called a low pressure flood. Many high pressure floods now operate at 1300-1400 p.s.i. at the well head. The limiting and advisable pressure at the sand face has been pronounced as that pressure just under what is required to lift the overburden or to cause formation parting: According to this rule any water flood operation utilizing well-head pressures nearly equal in pounds per sq. in. to 1.1 times the average depth in feet to the top of the producing sand would be considered as a high-pressure flood. Despite the higher pressure trends in the Bradford-Allegany field operations and the results of early laboratory water flooding research, the desirability and benefits of high input pressures are still questioned by many operators, particularly in midwestern water flood operations. The present paper recounts a series of 19 laboratory water floods using two long, consolidated cores of widely differing characteristics saturated with live crude and flooded with oil field brines in an effort to simulate field conditions under • various pressure gradients and flooding velocities. For both cores, higher recoveries and lower residual oil saturations were obtained at higher pressure gradients and flood velocities. This relationship is shown to hold up to the water breakthrough point and also up to the 100 to 1 produced water to oil ratio point.

Jan 1, 1949

By E. N. Doyle

Since the mid-1930's a number of plants, using the principles of heavy media separation, have been installed throughout the world. In cases involving lead, zinc or lead-zinc ores the reasons for the choice of this type of beneficiation process have fallen into four major categories: A) The economic recovery of additional distinctly separate products, such as dolomite limestone at the Mascot Plant (1) of the American Zinc Co., and the ferrosilicon produced by St. Joseph Lead Company. (2) B) The elimination of a large portion of run-of-the-mine ore prior to grinding and flotation, to allow increased throughput with low capital cost. Examples of this approach are the Levante and Ponente plants of the Montevecchio Company in Italy (3) and the frequent choice of the Sink-Float process by the Penarroya Company of Paris. C) The processing of a sedimentary deposit, in which the valuable mineral is contained in the matrix separating the boulders, as was the case at the St. Joseph Lead Company plant at Haydon Creek (4) and also at Bunker Hill Mining and Smelting, Kellogg, Idaho. D) The simplification of Around support programs in mines by allowing greater freedom of action in the extractive pattern. An example of this choice is Cominco’s Sullivan plant which came into being as part of an extensive proposal to update the mining, crushing, transportation, grinding and beneficiation processes. (5)

Jan 1, 1970

By A. Soundraraj, S. Singh, R. C. Deshpande

THE detonation of a high-explosive charge having a metal-lined conical cavity (shaped charge) results in a fast-moving jet and a slow-moving slug.1-4 Clark and Bruckner reported the metallographic studies of a cast-iron slug. The present note describes the metallographic studies of a copper slug and discusses the principle of flow involved. The shaped charge consisted of a 5-cm diam cylinder of cast high explosive (60-40 RDX-TNT mixture) having a 45 deg and 0.16-cm thick copper cone. The copper (99.5 pct purity) had a grain size of 0.06 to 0.08 mm diam and a hardness of 65 to 75 Hv. These were fired into a deep container of water and the slugs were recovered undamaged. The longitudinal and transverse sections of the slug were polished, etched, and examined for mi-crostructural changes. Macroexamination revealed a radial grain flow inwards towards the center and a downward component of flow towards the base of the slug. Fig. 1 shows schematically the micro-structural changes observed on the longitudinal section of the slug. The region D near the apex and also along the outer surface of the slug was characterized by the presence of heavily deformed and twinned grains. Some of the grains were having bent or crossed twins, Fig. 2. The grain size in this region was of the same order as that of the

Jan 1, 1960

By Frank Nicholson

Copper ore was first noticed in Ste. Genevieve County in 1563. The diswvery mas made by a German farmer named Simon Grass, who had occasion to make a road from his farm down the hill into the neighboring valley, and while so engaged noticed pieces of a green-colored mineral, some of which he collected. Not knowing the character of the ore he had found, and supposing it to be valua ble for its brilliant green color only, he carried a piece with him into the town of Ste. Genevieve and showed it around the various bar rooms as a curiosity. No special attention was paid to the matter until nine years later, when Mr. 0. D. Harris sent a specimen of the ore to Dr. Theodore Fay, of St. Louis, for analysis. This analysis, which was the first ever made of Ste. Genevieve copper ore, showed the specimen to contain : Copper,. .........17.75 per cent. Zinc,..........3.21 " Iron........... 24.50 " Sulphur ..........1.09 " Organic matter, silica, carbon, and oxygen,. .. 53.45 " 100.00 " From this analysis it is evident that the sample was taken from near the surface, and was probably recognized by its green color. The almost entire absence of sulphur proves it to be an oxidized form. There is on file, at the office of the Ste. Genevieve Copper Works, a paper* giving three arsays of the ore made in 1875 by Henry B.

Jan 1, 1882

By R. E. Miner, J. K. Jackson, T. L. Wilson

A study has been made of the transformation kintetics and morphology in gas-quenched Fe-5 pct Ni alloys. Massive ferrite or nlurtensite was found to form at temperatures in agreement with earlier results. Surface Preparation appeared to have the greatest effect in determining the type of transformation Product formed. Grain size change, subgrain morphology, and dislocation densities of massive ferrite were essen-tinlly invariant functions of cooling rate. The mar-tens~tic structures were typical of transformation in austenite grains of the order of the sample thickness. BY introducing the idea of a massive transformation in dilute iron-base alloys, Gilbert and Owen in 1962 served to stimulate a closer inspection of phase transformations in ferrous systems.' A wealth of literature has followed concerned with the morphology,2-5 transformation mode,2'3'6-8 and thermodynamics of transformations.2,5,9 interesting controversies have resulted from the experimental observations; closer attention has been paid to the definition of massive transformations and still to be resolved is the Ms temperature of pure iron. The purpose of this note is to report some observations made in a detailed kinetic and metallographic examination of the transformations that occur in gas quenched Fe-5 pct Ni. The results are pertinent to the Ms extrapolations that have been made for pure iron and the observed substructure of massively transformed alloys. PROCEDURE The material used in this investigation was cast as a 5 lb vacuum induction melted, carbon deoxidized heat. The ingot was hot worked to a strip 0.10 in. thick, decarburized, and cold rolled to final thickness. Specimens were punched to sample shape and decarburized in wet hydrogen at 600°C. The chemistry of test specimens is indicated in Table I. Samples 1 by $ in., by thickness were resistance heated and rapidly cooled in an apparatus as illustrated in Fig. 1. Similar helium quenching apparatuses have been described previously;2,6'10 the distinguishing feature of this apparatus is the nozzle geometry. Twin nozzles with three convergent-divergent, sonic ports were mounted perpendicular to the specimen for quenching purposes. The specimen temperature was monitored with an intrinsic 3 mil chromel-alumel thermocouple spot welded to the specimen and con- nected to an oscilloscope. A single switch stopped the current flow through the specimen, opened a gas flow solenoid valve, and initiated an oscilloscope sweep. Cooling rates were read directly from a photograph of the oscilloscope trace and the quenching rates quoted later were made at a point immediately prior to transformation on the trace. All quenching studies were conducted either under a vacuum of 10"-5 torr or a helium atmosphere. The sample geometry was chosen large enough to permit optical and electron microscopy to be performed on samples. The samples were electropolished for both types of examination in a perchloric-acetic solution. Electron microscopy was conducted on a HU 11A microscope operated at 100 kv. Dislocation densities were determined at the same general operating reflection (110) on foils thick enough to produce Kikuchi patterns. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Transformation Temperature Observations and OD-tical Microscopy. The quenching results of this study are illustrated in Fig. -2(a). Samples which were treated in the as-decarburized condition transformed in a manner similar to that reported previously—a decrease in transformation temperature occurred as the quenching rate increased until a plateau region was reached. Within the scatter of the results obtained here, there was no break in the transformation temperature-quenching rate plot. This suggests no change in transformation mode. Further metallographic examination confirmed this observation. A martensitic transformation was obtained for similarly treated samples except that the surface was first electropolished. The Ms temperature was approximately 85°C below the plateau determined for the unpolished samples and cooling rates as slow as 2000°C per sec were adequate for producing marten-site. The transformation temperatures are in gen- / STRIP SAMPLE / COPPER I SAX/-/}' / CONNECTOR-----A f, SON|C poRTS AC LEADS 3j ]j"I rofe[ \ Mf/yinK/iKj''^ THERMOCOUPLE X-(^—iie"s*c? ' LEADS 1 INCH Fig. 1-—Schematic scction of gas quenching apparatus

Jan 1, 1970

By Arnulf Muan, Hobart M. Kraner

Ferromanganese alloys react with aluminu-silica brick in blast furnace hearths and cause the formation of new phases with low refractoriness and consequent failure of the refractory lining. The nature of these reactions is explained on the basis of petrographic observations, thermodynamic data, and Phase equilibrium considerations. Animproued hearth design resulted from these findings. The production of ferromanganese in blast furnaces presents many problems which are not encountered in the production of iron in the same furnaces. One of the most serious of these problems is the rapid failure of refractories caused by their reaction with the ferromanganese metal. The present paper describes such a "hearth attack", its symptoms, causes, and cure. Following an introductory discussion of operating practice in ferromanganese blast furnaces, results are presented of a petrographic examination of samples from a furnace which had to be shut down because of refractory failure. The causes of this failure are then analyzed on the basis of petrographic observations combined with thermodynamic and phase equilibrium data available in the literature. The latter type of data were subsequently used as a guide in recommending improvements in hearth designs which have since proven themselves successful in practical operations. I) FERROMANGANESE BLAST FURNACE PRACTICE It is considered good practice to blow in a furnace on iron and operate it in this way for a period of time preliminary to producing ferrornanganese. During this time, iron generally penetrates the bottom refractories six or more feet below the original working surface of the hearth. Not only does this metal pervade the joints to these depths, but the pores of the refractories are usually also filled by molten iron. The high throughput of the iron furnace provides ample heat to maintain a high temperature in the hearth refractories. This, together with a high ferrostatic pressure, causes porous clay brick of the hearth to shrink. During subsequent use of such a furnace in ferromanganese production, the iron in the pores of hearth brick if; replaced to some extent by ferromanganese. The replacement is usually not complete. This is probably due to the lower metal throughput and lower prevailing temperatures resulting from this in the brick of the hearth bottom. When the ferrornanganese furnace is banked—or when the temperature in the furnace falls due to a furnace delay—-manganese oxidizes even though the atmosphere is largely CO. Considerable expansion accompanies this oxidation of manganese from metal to oxide. The hearth refractories are then subjected to the disintegrating forces of the volume expansion. These forces may in extreme cases be large enough to lift the furnace off its mantle supports as was described in a previous paper.' When cooling takes place slowly, however, and the temperature remains at a fairly high level, the refractories undergo fluxing action by the MnO. This latter reaction and the reduction of SiO2 of the clay brick is the general subject of the present paper. The observations to be described herein were made on a ferromanganese furnace located at the Johnstown plant of Bethlehem Steel Co. The furnace was lined entirely with clay refractories and had operated on iron for 266 days and on ferromanganese for 96 days prior to being taken off because of a hearth wall failure. II) PETROGRAPHIC EXAMINATION AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS The photograph reproduced in Fig. 1 shws a cross section of the upper part of an 18 by 9 by 4-1/2 in. bottom block removed from the blast furnace. This brick came from a depth of approximately 6 ft below the original working face of the bottom. It will be noted that the 4-1/2 in. dimension is almost the same as when the brick entered the furnace. Three characteristically different zones marked I, II, and III on the print of Fig. 1 are apparent. Results of chemical analyses of the original brick and samples from each of these zones are listed in Table I. Petrographically the various zones were characterized as follows: The central zone marked I was essentially un-reacted brick. The microstructure consisted of fine needles of mullite, and the pores in this entire area were filled with iron. This is characteristic of

Jan 1, 1962

By A. N. Khayyat, R. G. Temple, R. Skelton

The fluid energy mill has been in use since the 1930's when an early patent was granted to N.H. Andrews in the USA. The microniser design has been basically unaltered since that date and current designs such as the Airfilco "Micronizer" have been progressively developed from results based on wide experience. The authors have been engaged in a research programme to establish optimum design and operational parameters for the Micronizer so as to provide a more quantitative basis for scale-up prediction of results. An introductory section will first trace the development of fluid energy milling including reference to other designs which have developed alongside the micronizer (especially the “Jet-o-miser"). With regard to design features the number of fluid injection nozzles and their size was investigated to establish the optimum range. Injection angle and, the consequent diameter of the internal "tangential circle" was carefully studied to determine the effect of this parameter on product size. The research was carried out using fine limestone as the test material with air as the grinding medium. Feed size fractions of 0-120µm, 0-250µm, 0-500µm, and 300-600µm were milled and product size analyses were carried out using the Coulter Counter technique.

Jan 1, 1980

By J. W. Gwinn

THE underground haulage system in the lead-silver mine of the-Bunker Hill & Sullivan Co., situated at Kellogg, Idaho, is the most extensive in the Coeur d'Alène district, comprising about 35,000 ft. of tunnels, drifts, and cross-cuts where locomotive haulage is in use. The main working adit, known as the Kellogg tunnel, or No. 9 level, is approximately 10,000 ft. in length from the portal to the main working shaft and extends beyond that about 4,500 ft. in each of two directions. On this level all the ore from the Bunker Hill & Sullivan, the Sierra Nevada Consolidated, and the Caledonia Mining Co. an average of 44,600 tons per month-is hauled to the mills, located a short distance from the portal. Electric haulage by the trolley-type locomotive is used on this level throughout. Below this level, at intervals of 200 ft. vertically, are five other working levels (Nos. 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14); and the total haulage distance on these, where electric locomotives are used, is approximately 16,000 ft. No. 13 level has but recently been opened up and is not working-to capacity; while the main cross-cut on No. 14 has just been started, and has no need of power haulage. Of the four levels equipped with electric haulage, Nos. 11, 12, and 13 have storage-battery locomotives, and No. 10 still retains the trolley type by reason of the small and decreasing tonnage produced.

Jan 2, 1915

By Leonard Klein

Reduction of oxygen-containing copper has always heretofore been brought about with wood poles. This paper reveals the first successful, economical, and Practical substitute for poles: a gaseous reductant, of which the production and plant use are detailed herein. THE art of fire refining of copper, consisting of melting, oxidation, slag removal, and finally reduction with wood poles, has been practiced for many centuries. An authentic record, discussed in detail in De Re Metallica,* mentions that as early as 1200 A.D. workers in this field of metallurgy were already acquainted with and practiced the basic principles of copper purification. Undoubtedly, the art was well developed marly centuries before the first written records began to appear. Notwithstanding the many advantages gained by application of mechanical con. trivances and by the tremendous increase in size of operations over the centuries, the reduction phase of the process has persisted essentially the same to the present time except for a very recent breakthrough. Numerous articles have been published and many patents have been issued on the subject of substitutes for wood poling in the past half century. They have dealt with a variety of gaseous, solid, and liquid reducing agents. But to the knowledge of the writer, no procedure has ever been prosecuted to a complete success on a large operating plant scale with the single exception of gaseous reduction of oxygen-containing copper revealed in detail herein. A natural gas-air reformer with ample capacity for

Jan 1, 1962

By P. H. Royster, T. L. Joseph

In a study of the blast-furnace process, the Bureau of Mines has made many experiments for the purpose of determining the exact nature of the combustion of coke in the neighborhood of the tuyeres. Two papers1 presented at a meeting of this Institute discussed somewhat the practical aspects of coke combustibility in its relation to the operation of the blast furnace. In a later paper,2 Sherman and Kinney discussed the possible effect of variations in the combustibility of cokes on the furnace operation, and find that the "reoxidation theory" of Koppers and the "heat concentration theory" of Brassert³ are insuffcient to explain the variation in the conduct of different cokes that has been observed by furnace operators. In their report to the D-5 Committee of the American Society for Testing Materials, with which the Bureau of Mines has been cooperating, Perrott and Fieldner4 seem to agree with Sherman and Kinney that, for practical purposes, the nature of the combustion of coke at the tuyeres of any furnace is constant and is affected neither by the physical properties of the coke nor by the nature of the furnace operation. They omit as unimportant any tests on the combustibility of coke from their proposed methods for standard tests on coke. In the last two papers, it is pointed out that performance tests, in which all other factors except coke quality are kept constant, are to be desired and

Jan 1, 1924

CHICAGO SECTION CHARLES H. MACDOWELL, Chairman, Luther V. DICE, Vice-Chairman, HENRY WT. NICHOLS,. Secretary-Treasurer, 164.5 E. 68 St., Chicago; Ill. ALEXANDER K. HAMILTON-, HENRY P. HOWLAND, GEORGE P. HULST, FREDERICK 1. SNYDER. There were 32 members present at the dinner of the Chicago Section which was held at the Chicago Engineers' Club on Friday Evening, December 22. At the meeting after the dinner, the Chairman called attention to the work of Mr. Hoover in Belgium and spoke briefly of the assistance which' could be given him through the Belgian Kiddies, Ltd. Mr. Alonzo Kinyon read a paper on "Burring Powdered Coal" which so interested the members that many of them participated in the long discussion which followed. Prof. Harry B. Pulsifier then described the metallurgical plants about Chicago. He mentioned briefly the equipment and interesting features of 30 metallurgical plants of importance and stated that there were also 200 foundries in the district. He said that when number, size, quality and diversity of the plants are considered, the Chicago District is justified in calling itself the greatest metallurgical center on earth. The paper was followed by a brief discussion in Which attention was called to some smaller and incipient plants of an interesting character. HENRY T. NICHOLS, Secretary.

Jan 2, 1917

By P. H. Royster

IN a study of the blast-furnace process, the Bureau of Mines has made many experiments for the purpose of determining the exact nature of the combustion of coke in the neighborhood of the tuyeres. Two papers1 presented at a meeting of this Institute discussed somewhat the practical aspects of coke combustibility in its relation to the operation of the blast furnace. In a later paper,2 Sherman and Kinney discussed the possible effect of variations in the combustibility of cokes on the furnace operation, and find that the "reoxidation theory" of Koppers and the "heat concentration theory" of Brassert3 are insufficient to explain the variation in the conduct of different cokes that has been observed by furnace operators. In their report to the D-5 Committee of the American Society for Testing Materials, with which the Bureau of Mines has been cooperating, Perrott and Fieldner4 seem to agree with Sherman and Kinney that, for practical purposes, the nature of the combustion of coke at the tuyeres of any furnace is constant and is affected neither by the physical properties of the coke nor by the nature of the furnace operation. They omit as unimportant any tests on the combustibility of coke from their proposed methods for standard tests on coke. In the last two papers, it is pointed out that performance tests, in which all other factors except coke quality are kept constant, are to be desired and

Jan 3, 1924

It is claimed that the first mining of copper by Americans in Arizona was done at Ajo, near the Mexican border, in 1854,* a year after this region had been added to the United States, under the terms of the Gadsden purchase. A group of adventurers, organized at Los Angeles under the name of the Arizona Mining & Trading Company, came, to the district. This party of prospectors consisted of 20 men, led by Major B. Allen, J. D. Wilson, and William Blanding. † They went first to Yuma, where the party divided, some of them going southward into Mexico while the remainder took the trail to Tinaja Alta, where they heard of the copper deposits of Ajo, which is 85 miles southeast from Yuma.‡ They found attractive outcrops of copper ore, and set to work energetically, but their operations suffered many interruptions, because that part of the country was still controlled by the Mexicans, who were uncertain about the exact position of the new international boundary. The Mexicans tried to expel them, but they held their ground. The first shipment of ore, consisting of native copper and cuprite, came from what is now the western end of of the New Cornelia workings; it was hauled in ox-carts to San Diego, 400 miles across the desert. § Later shipments were hauled to Yuma and floated on barges down the Colorado river to the Gulf of California, whence the ore was loaded on

Jan 1, 1932

GEORGE F. BECKER Dr. George Ferdinand Becker, notice of- whose death appeared in the May Bulletin, was born in New York City Jan. 5, 1847, the son of Alexander Christian Becker, member of a Danish family, and Sarah Cary Tuckernian Becker of Boston. Dr. Becker was the last member of the group of distinguished geologists who, in 1879, were associated with Clarence King at the time of the organization of the United States Geological Survey. He was a leader in mining geology and geophysics, and for many years had been the chief of the Division of Chemical and Physical Research in the Geological Survey, and the investigations under his direction led to the establishment of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Dr. Becker was a graduate of Harvard University and received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Heidelberg, and in 1871 passed the final examinations at the Royal School of Mines in Berlin. He was for four years an instructor of mining and metallurgy in the University of California, from which he went to the United States Geological Survey. In 1896 he examined the gold and diamond mines f South Africa and at the time of the Spanish-American War was detailed to serve as geologist on the staff of General Bell with the army in the Philippine Islands. He died at his hone in Washington, D. C., on Apr. 20'.1

Jan 6, 1919

By Francis M. Walters

IN spite of the war and the preoccupation of many physical metallurgists with work on secret or confidential problems, definite progress was made during 1944 in our understanding of the behavior of steel and of the effect of alloying elements. During the first two years of the war there was much concern over the possible unavailability of certain alloying elements; this period saw the development of the N.E. (National Emergency) steels. However, the measures taken eased the alloy situation and currently, highly practical problems under study are the graphitization of low-carbon steel and weld-cracking, while investigations of more theoretical interest have concerned hardenability, isothermal reactions, the effect of hydrogen and the interpretation of the notched-bar impact test.

Jan 1, 1945

By George B. Clark

THE geological data emphasized so successfully in prospecting for new deposits, that is, structural controls, strength of solutions, and type of mineralization, are basically those required for successful exploitation. In the mining of newly discovered deposits the most economical methods should be employed as early as possible to keep the overall cost per unit produced at a minimum and to permit maximum extraction of valuable minerals. A crucial question is: How can geological data be translated into useful quantitative results which will aid in achieving this end? H. E. McKinistry1 has suggested that a solution may be reached in one of two ways: 1-the usual approach, use of judgment based on experience; or 2-mathematical calculations and tests on models, both subject to certain limitations. He also suggests that in addition to better use of geology more case data and theoretical data are needed on which to base sound judgment. Further research, therefore, is necessary. Perhaps in this field the emphasis should be on more specialization in mining methods and ground movement by men with thorough training in physics, engineering, geology, and underground mining. These specialists would be equipped to point out the most economical and scientific methods of exploitation.

Jan 8, 1954