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By John Nelson

AN OUTLINE survey of the economic outlook for the United States export trade in petroleum products resolves itself broadly into two general divisions; first, a consideration of our present position in this trade, and second, a discussion of the visible factors which promise to affect appreciable changes in the immediate future in that trade. The UNITED STATES PETROLEUM EXPORTS OF MAJOR PETROLEUM PRODUCTS 1925, 1926 and 1927 Gasoline, Naphtha, and Other Light Products 1925 1926 1927* Quantity (gal.) 1,286,787,796 1,784,154,802 1,851,494,190 Value $197,491,588 $263,199,938 $214,721,652 'Illuminating Oil, Kerosene 1925 1926 1927* Quantity (gal.) 885;136,041 924,680,979 827,162,280 Value $84,699,724 $100,352,877 $80,358,082 Gas and Fuel Oil 1925 1926 I 1927 Quantity (gal.) 1,365,358,988 1,449,688,394 1,815,130,464 Value.... ? $49,040,024 $45,354,108. .. $50,343,031 Lubricating. Oil 1925... ....1926 .. 1927 Quantity .(gal.) 402,572,584 388,767,055 403,369,512 Value $90,596,671 $86,414,621 $88,926,815

Jan 1, 1928

By Edgar G. Hill

Much has been written and said recently about the methods used and materials and equipment employed in building the long tubes that criss-cross a great part of the United States, like the pattern of a spider's web. This paper will discuss the fundamentals of design of these lines from the economic as well as the engineering viewpoint, pointing out the effect of the volumes transported, and the load factor, on the unit costs of transportation, as well as the effects on costs of the character 01 the fluids the lines are called upon to handle. Generally speaking, crude-oil pipe lines carry oil from the producing fields to the refineries. Sometimes part of the journey is by pipe line to a coastal point and tank ships are employed for the rest of the trip. The main lines of directional flow of crude oil through pipe lines in the United States are shown on Fig. I, but this, of course, does not always show individual pipe lines. Basic Formula for Flow OF Crude Oil The laws governing the flow of crude oil through pipes are well known. The basic

Jan 1, 1942

By Edgar G. Hill

Much has been written and said recently about the methods used and materials and equipment employed in building the long tubes that criss-cross a great part of the United States, like the pattern of a spider's web. This paper will discuss the fundamentals of design of these lines from the economic as well as the engineering viewpoint, pointing out the effect of the volumes transported, and the load factor, on the unit costs of transportation, as well as the effects on costs of the character 01 the fluids the lines are called upon to handle. Generally speaking, crude-oil pipe lines carry oil from the producing fields to the refineries. Sometimes part of the journey is by pipe line to a coastal point and tank ships are employed for the rest of the trip. The main lines of directional flow of crude oil through pipe lines in the United States are shown on Fig. I, but this, of course, does not always show individual pipe lines. Basic Formula for Flow OF Crude Oil The laws governing the flow of crude oil through pipes are well known. The basic

Jan 1, 1942

By H. C. Fiedler

THE development of the cube-on-edge secondary re-crystallization texture in Si-Fe strip depends upon the ability of inclusions to restrain normal grain growth. This ability is determined by the number and size of inclusions, which, for a given composition, is controlled by the thermal history of the material during the prior processing.' It has been shown2 that increasing the silicon content decreases the solubility of sulfur, and it is the purpose of this note to show the consequences of this decreased solubility for secondary recrystallization. Heats were made as previously described and cast into graphite molds.' The compositions are shown in Table I. Slabs 1 in. thick were cut from the ingots and either hot-rolled from 1000°C in the as-cast condition or after one of the heat treatments described later. The processing to the final gage of 12 mils followed the previous procedure.' To avoid cracking, the 5.2 pct Si alloy was cold-rolled at 150" to 200°C rather than at room temperature. The percent cube-on-edge texture developed by isothermal heat treatments was determined by dividing the maximum torque measured on disk sam-

Jan 1, 1968

By Plato Malozemoff

Our young, technically oriented people today are entranced by the space program, by physics that unlocks the secrets of nature, by electronics, and by other new technologies. The mining industry seems to be their last choice. Enrollment in mining schools is dropping and so is the interest of our great universities in mining curricula. The image of the mining industry appears to be one of being conservative, nonprogressive, resistant to change, and lacking in excitement and challenge. I submit that this public image is wrong. While the initial development of mines is usually slow and seemingly plodding, the problem of solving the imponderables of nature-the ore emplacement, its structure and physical characteristics, its response to recovery processes, and its probable ultimate profitability-is stimulating to the most acute and searching of minds and requires careful application of a combination of many technologies. The paths to obtaining the desired results must be within the bounds of reasonable expenditures in the early stage of development when risks are still high, and this financial discipline is a further stimulus to the imaginative search for the right answers.

Jan 6, 1968

By James A. Todd

Use of AN-FO in underground operations has greatly reduced the cost of primary explosives. AN-FO is also less sensitive than conventional dynamites, and when properly used, is safer. Maximum safety in the use of AN-FO, however, requires an understanding of potential hazards from toxic fumes as well as static electricity developed in pneumatic loading. Safe limits and guides have been established to permit most operations to pneumatically load holes that are bottom primed with electric blasting caps, but the toxic fume hazard is less widely understood. During 1959-1960 Du Pont cooperated with the U.S. Bureau of Mines to study the toxic fumes produced by prilled ammonium nitrate-NO. 2 fuel oil mixtures. The conclusions from this work were that oxygen balanced AN-FO, when thoroughly mixed, well primed and well confined in dry holes, produces no greater amounts of toxic fumes than conventional dynamites rated Class I by the Institute of Makers of Explosives. The study also showed, however, that any deviation from these guides tends to increase significantly the quantity of toxic fumes produced. This work was reported by the Bureau of International Symposium on Mining Research at Rolla, Mo., in February 1961.'

Jan 4, 1963

By R. Laird Auchmuty

FOREWORD THE A. I. M. E. Subcommittee on Bituminous Mining has been trying for several years to secure the information that was collected by the Marquette Cement Manufacturing Co. on the subsidence of its property caused by mining coal beneath it. The Marquette company was willing to have these data used, but it was impossible to obtain them because the records had been filed away. About two years ago these records became available and the engineering data presented herewith were compiled from them by R. L. Auchmuty, assisted by L. E. Young, who was connected with the collection of the information. On account of the cost, it is impossible to reproduce all of the data here, although the original information is on file with the records of the Committee on Ground Movement and Subsidence. The accompanying charts show representative and average data and give only the engineering information with enough description to tell how it was obtained. It is hoped that all of those connected with the original case will participate in the discussion that this will bring forth. HOWARD N. EAVENSON, Chairman, Subcommittee on Bituminous Coal Mining.

Jan 1, 1931

By William Best

OIL burners, oil furnaces, and methods of installation, have been the subject of many articles, but information concerning oil-burning systems, based upon scientific principles, is still in great demand, especially in the manufacturing districts of our country. Fuel oil, as it is termed (this being the residuum from oil refineries), has for many years been of great service to our manufacturers, and has justified its popularity not only by producing a superior manufactured product, but by turning out approximately 50 per cent. more product than can be made with coal fuel under like conditions. To install a system requiring only an oil-storage tank, a small pump, and an oil-supply main with numerous laterals leading to the various burners, furnaces, boilers, etc., is a comparatively simple matter; and, because fuel oil is very volatile, it is not necessary to heat it, even during the winter months in a very cold climate. Furthermore, only a small amount of power is required to atomize fuel oil, this often being done by a positive pressure blower, or by a mechanical burner. An analysis of fuel oil, together with that of various other liquid fuels, is given in Table I.

Jan 2, 1914

By C. H. Mathewson

UNFORTUNATE evasions of metals specifications recently brought to public attention through news items and editorials have caused executives of at least two great corporations to set up defensive procedures and to re¬affirm the patriotic purpose and conscientious effort of their plants in this battle of production. Whatever the exact conditions affecting these cases, in which the public interest has been safe-guarded by vigorous action, my reaction to such offenses in general is a feeling that they arise from the pressure and limitations that afflict our overextended war effort and that inevitably there will be more of them, doubtless more and more expertly conceived and less and less subject to detection as simple faked, or substituted analyses or tests. To the ladies, who doubtless are already beginning to ac¬quire a sense of painful resignation to a dry technical talk, may I say that the cookbook is full of specifications which customarily are varied within rather wide limits but it is generally recognized that the proof of the pudding is in the eating without regard to its exact composition or some scientific evaluation of its texture.

Jan 1, 1943

By Ernest Kirkendall

THE amount of research done in the last few years on the subject of diffusion in solid metals is significant of the importance of this problem. To review the literature dealing with diffusion is unnecessary here. Desch1 in 1912 reviewed the work that had been done on diffusion in solids and gave a bibliography of the literature published before that time. Mehl's paper in 1936 2 is an excellent review of diffusion in metals and contains a large bibliography. Of importance also for its review and bibliography is an article by A. I. Krynitsky.3 While considerable material has appeared in the literature on diffusion in brass, the amount of information is not great compared to that pertain-ing to some of the other alloys. Most of the information published is of a qualitative nature; that which is quantitative varies considerably. Thus the quantitative determination of the rates of diffusion of copper and zinc in alpha brass by a new method appeared worth while. In the present investigation the rate of diffusion of zinc in approxi-mately the same composition alpha brass has been determined at three temperatures.

Jan 1, 1938

By Joseph G. Mravec

ALL manufacturers of high-quality steel are conscious of the detrimental effects of nonmetallic inclusions in steel. Entrapped refractory inclusions are particularly troublesome when encountered during machining operations. Modern cutters used for machining such parts as gears and pinions arc costly tools, which are readily nicked and damaged by hard inclusions. A single hard inclusion can so nick and damage a delicate finishing tool as to necessitate its regrinding. Frequent exposure of hard inclusions during machining, therefore, decreases cutter life, lowers production, and increases rejections of defective parts. The importance of cleanliness of the steel, therefore, is obvious and the production of the cleanest possible steel is a continual challenge to the steelmaker. Inclusions in steel may be classified in two general groups: (i) deoxidation-type inclusions, and (2) refractory-type inclusions. The latter consist of entrapped material eroded from the refractories used in melting and conveying of the steel from the melting furnace to the ingot molds. It is the purpose of this paper to dwell mainly on steel cleanliness as it is affected by various refractories used in the melting furnaces, the ladles, and the ingot molds.

Jan 1, 1947

By W. C. Kerr

ThE distribution of gold is obviously much wider than is Commanly supposed. Resides the usual matrices, vehicles, or associates, such as quartz, pyrite, chalcopyrite, etc., I find it occurring in quite a range of common rocks. For example, at the Rhodes mine, in Gaston County, a body of 9 to 12 feet of decoroposed, light-gray gneiss was worked together with the strings of quartz, and yielded from six to ten dollars to the ton. A mine in Moore County yields its gold mainly from a feldspathic schist. In the famous King's Mountain mine, in Gaston County, the gold is obtained not only from the seams of quartz in a blue, hydromicaceous schist, but a 60-foot ledge of grayish-blue, fine-grained, schistose limestone is quarried out bodily and sent to the stamps. It is gold-bearing throughout. In Montgomery County the singular concretionary, conglomeritic, quartzite schist, which contains Emmons's palceotrochis, is gold-bearing over wide tracts of country. This fact was noticed by Dr. Emmons. But a still more striking and significant fact is, that a large part of the gold of Montgomery, Davidson, and Randolph counties,

Jan 1, 1882

By R. J. Wysor

Discussion of the paper of R. J. WYSOR, presented at the New York meeting, February, 1916, and printed in Bulletin No. 106, October, 1915, pp. 2161 to 2170. LEONARD WALDO, New York, N. Y.-Will Mr. Wysor kindly give us more information as to the pyrometers used and the temperature measurement? R. J. WYSOR, So. Bethlehem, Pa.-We used standard Bristol pyrometers with bare fire ends. These were standardized both before and after the tests with salt and pure aluminum. We also interchanged the pyrometers. J. W. RICHARDS, So. Bethlehem, Pa.-Did you attain any results which gave you approximately the value of the heat insulation at any of the furnaces? R. J. WYSOR.-In the first installation we were afraid to put in the insulation throughout the hot-blast main for the reasons mentioned in the paper, but we used the insulating brick in two 8-ft. sections in straight lengths of our hot-blast mains. Owing to the high conductivity of the steel shell, the temperatures which were taken on the outside were not representative of the two temperatures resulting from heat flow through the insulating brick. I believe that when a hot-blast main is insulated

Jan 5, 1916

By Walter A. Backofen, Donald H. Avery

Intense primary and cross-slip traces were observed in easy glide on Cu: 6 pct-A1 single crystals deformed in tension. A mechanism of cooperative source operation is developed which recognizes that both the applied stress and that resolved from dislocation arrays contribute to the stress on a source. By considering the stress from arrays, the activation of secondary systems in easy glide and the difference in appearance of slip markings on pure and solid-solution crystals are explained. Furthermore the cross-slip system is predicted to be second favored during easy glide for a large range of orientations. FROM many studies of easy glide in fcc metal crystals, a pattern of observations has developed which still requires full explanation. In pure copper, aluminum, and silver, the easy-glide, slip traces are fine and uniform with steps 50 to 100A on the primary* system.1-4 Yet it has not been at all clear why slip in the pure materials should occur in this way. On the contrary, one might expect, with simple slip and a low hardening rate, that the weakest sources on the primary system would operate extensively to produce strong slip traces. In a brass, however, intense slip steps up to 0.5 are found on both primary and cross-slip system4,6-9 seeger10 has pointed out that in a material of low stacking-fault energy such as a brass, extensive easy-glide cross-slip could not be thermally activated, but rather must originate on the cross-slip plane. In further explanation, the wilsdorfs4 and seeger10 noted that only the cross-slip system would not harden differently than the primary, whatever the latent hardening tendencies of other systems; therefore, in brass, which exhibits high latent hardening, the cross-slip is the only secondary system which could be expected to operate extensively, once it became active. The explanation of how the cross-slip system, on which the applied stress is low, becomes activated has been related, in a nonspecific way, to pileups by Hirsch11 and Honeycombe.l2 In the work to be described, deformation traces on solid-solution Cu: 6 pct A1 single crvstals were studied with conventional light microscopy and a mechanism proposed to explain both the observed activation of secondary systems in easy glide and the difference in appearance of slip markings on pure and solid-solution crystals. EXPERIMENTAL In preparing the Cu-A1 single crystals, rectangular bars approximately 0.4 in. by 0.4 in. by 6 in. were first machined from ingots made by vacuum melting copper of 99.999 pct and aluminum of 99.99 pct purity. They were then packed in powdered graphite and the crystals grown in a modified Bridgman apparatus at a rate of 5 mm per hr under an atmosphere of purified nitrogen. Crystal perfection as indicated by Laue back-reflection spots was good except for the last inch to freeze, which was discarded. Orientations so determined are shown in Fig. 1. Tensile specimens with a reduced gage section were obtained by masking the ends with electrical tape and chemically polishing in a solution of 20 pct HNO3, 24 pct HAc, 52 pct H3PO4, 2 pct Hcl, and 2 pct H20 at room temperature.13 Finally, the specimens were electropolished in a 30 pct ortho-phosphoric acid bath at 12 v. Tensile deformation was performed in an Instron testing machine at a strain rate of approximately 1 pct per min. During easy glide, extensive cross-slip was observed with all crystals, in spite of the low Schmid factor on this system, and in no case was any other secondary trace encountered. A certain sequence of slip-line development was associated with the extension. At yielding, intense primary traces passing completely through the crystal developed at some point on the gage section, generally near the grips; weak cross-slip traces also appeared, extending from the primary traces into the adjacent undeformed crystal, Fig. 2. Further extension led to primary traces adjacent to the first-formed and connecting with those of the cross-

Jan 1, 1963

By A. J. Weinig

THE Liberty Bell cyanide precipitate is unique in that it is apt to vary widely in composition in the course of very short, periods of time, and a method of refining and melting that would prove highly satisfactory at one cleanup would yield almost an hopeless "mess" it a second. Table I gives a general conception of the wide range in grade and composition of those raw precipitates. It is evident that no one standard flux could be expected to produce a high-grade bullion with such a widely variable precipitate, and that any method of treatment with acid requires most careful consideration. Refining by Acids Naturally, our first efforts to improve our precipitates were directed along the lines of acid treatment. Table II embodies the results of careful sampling and analysis of one cleanup at the time when wet refining reached its maximum development at this mill. We have now discarded all methods of wet refining, successfully replacing them by amore scientific method of flux calculation described herein, but it is believed that a general description of this wet refining is warranted as it throws some interesting side lights on acid refining in general.

Jan 3, 1916

By Robert W. Hunt

Delays in the completion of the alterations to the plant at the works of Messrs. Oliver Bros. and Phillips, in Pittsburgh, coupled with the increased demand for metal made from regular Bessemer pig, placing the firm many hundreds of tons behind in their deliveries, prevented Mr. Henry W. Oliver, Jr., from redeeming his promise to place his works at my disposal for further tests of high-phosphorus irons, until May 5th. Upon that date, I assumed charge of the operations in his steel-plant. Mr. Oliver had purchased Neshannock pig as a basis for a supply of phosphorus. My information is to the effect that this iron is made from low-grade Lake Superior ores and mill-cinder, the latter "ore" being utilized to about 40 per cent. of the total mixture. At all events the pig had quite as much phosphorus, and in as varying quantities, as the most exacting could desire. My experiments of last fall had well satisfied me as to the effect of from 0.35 to 0.55 per cent. of phosphorus in the Clapp Griffiths metal. Hence at this time my first trials were directed to

Jan 1, 1886

CHARLES SCHUCHERT,* New Haven, Conn. (written discussion?).- I embrace ace the opportunity to take part in a discussion of Mr. Woodruff's paper because a successful discerning of what actually constitutes pet-roliferous areas from the geologists' standpoint is worthy of our endeavors, not only from the intellectual side, but also because it may lead, as Mr. Woodruff hopes, to the more certain establishment of principles that can be applied to other continents in exploiting them for petroleum. This discussion will also embrace the results of two other recent papers, one by Alexander W. McCoy and one by Maurice G. Mehl.1 Sources of Petroleum.-Mr. Woodruff is agreed that petroleum comes from plants and animals, or possibly from both, and that it has ac-cumulated by migration into reservoir rocks. These reservoir rocks must of course be porous to become catch basins for the oil and gas, and then, too, their present structures are variable, as they occur in anticlines, domes, terraces, etc. , The structures, he states, are more widespread than are the oil pools, and the same is true for the reservoir rocks. Accordingly, there must be many good sands and structures

Jan 11, 1919

By Fred P. Dewey

The iron ores of Canada have attracted more or less attention in this country for a number of years ; and having had an opportunity this past summer to examine some of them, especially the magnetic ores, I have thought it might be of sufficient interest to the members of the Institute to put on record some of my observations. The region examined contains, for the most part, only the rocks of the Laurentian system. Much of it was originally covered with a dense growth of pine, which interfered with successful prospecting for ores. However, after the best of the timber had been cut off, fire generally got into the bush and cleared it up pretty well. This, besides making travelling about easier, exposed large surfaces of rock, and rendered the work of the prospector far more liable to be rewarded with success, while removing many of its hardships. The general appearance and productiveness of the land have, however, been far from improved by this process. It would be difficult to find a more desolate-appearing country than some of these pine woods after fire has been through them. The country examined may be, for convenience, divided into two

Jan 1, 1884

By Howard E. Parkinson, John N. Murphy

The past five years have seen communications techniques and hardware developed by the Bureau of Mines and its contractors increasingly brought into use in U.S. mines. The Bureau philosophy has been to help develop and introduce new hardware that goes as far as possible toward meeting the mining industry's needs. The Bureau programs are also designed to provide continuous fallout of new communications capabilities which are introduced to the mine operators as they occur. As more progress is made in meeting mine communications needs, it is hoped that the mining industry will readily adopt the equipment and techniques that it finds most useful in meeting its individual needs. This paper reports on recent advances achieved in the development of improved mine communications systems. In May 1975 the U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) conducted a mine communications technology meeting to provide a brief overview of the USBM communications technology developments in the past 5 yr. This meeting lasted for 1 1/2 days. Therefore, I have elected to narrow this paper to a brief review of recent underground mine communication developments. The following will be discussed: 1) Ultra-high frequency (UHF) radio for fan hole drill operators;

Jan 1, 1978

By Willard S. Morse

In my paper on "The Lixiviation of Silver-Ores by the Russell Process at Aspen, Colorado" (page 137 of the present volume), attention was called to the decrease in "chlorination " during the washing of the roasted ore with water, to remove soluble salts, before leaching with hyposulphite and Russell solutions. This decrease in " chlorination," which is due to conversion of the silver chloride to some other form not soluble in hyposulphite solutions, and which, for the sake of brevity, will be termed the "going-back" of chlorination, has been a serious obstacle to the successful operation of several leaching-works, and was at Aspen the only difficulty encountered. I have never seen any explanation of the cause of this failure to extract, in actual practice in the mill, the amount of silver chloride shown by laboratory-leachings to be present in the roasted ore; and the purpose of this paper is to record the conclusions arrived at concerning the cause of the phenomenon, and the data upon which they are based. The average decrease in chlorination by washing with water in the Aspen ores for a period of fourteen months was as follows:

Jan 1, 1896