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By N. Grosland, G. Kopp, L. Frey-Law, D. Wilder, M. Contratto, S. Rahmatalla, T. Xia

Heavy equipment manufacturers have made a long-term commitment to minimize operator vibration exposure for comfort, performance, and health reasons. Domestic and international guidelines/standards and EC laws dictate exposure limits based on measurement of vibration at the interface between the seat and the operator’s buttocks using seat-pad accelerometry.1-4 This is historically based on the assumption that the only major source of vibration is transmitted through the seat pan. However, vibration may also be imparted to the head and neck via the steering wheel and/or arm-rest controls and a relatively rigid upper body.5 Unfortunately, little is known regarding the influence of arm position on head and neck motion. The purpose of this study was to investigate relative head and trunk motions during riding simulations of large construction equipment, using three different arm control options. Methods Five typical heavy equipment ride files were “played back” through a man-rated Servo Test 6-degree-of-freedom vibration system. An 8-camera Vicon motion capture system operating at 200 frames per second, recorded the motion of reflective surface markers on 5th, 50th, and 95th percentile right-handed male subjects, using 3 seat and control configurations (steering wheel (SW), floor mounted armrest controls (FM), seat-mounted armrest controls (SM)). Two trials were performed for each ride and seat control combination (each trial: 60 sec of 6-dof and 60 sec of vertical vibration). The relative motions (change in distances) from the marker over the xiphoid process (caudal end of sternum) to markers over each shoulder, each mid-clavicle, the presternal notch, and to each of four markers on a tight band around the head were calculated (12,001 frames, 6-dof motion only). As a rigid body control, distances between markers on the head band were also monitored. The standard deviation (SD) of the 12,001 distances between pairs of markers was normalized by the mean (L) of the associated distances producing: SD/L which was used as a measure of motion. Error assessments were also performed by analyzing the motion between relatively fixed markers (on the headband). A repeated measures analysis of variance was used to evaluate the results. While five ride files were used, only one ride file containing significant lateral acceleration components was analyzed for comparing the effects of two armrest controls versus use of a steering wheel for this part of our study. Results Values of SD/L between the points on the relatively rigid head band were consistently small and similar to each other for all conditions with one exception due to treatment (SM v SW, p=0.0145). SD/L between the markers over the xiphoid process and the presternal notch, another region that should be relatively rigid, were also similar to each other for all conditions. Use of floor-mounted, arm rest controls versus a steering wheel produced a significant increase in the value of SD/L between the xiphoid process and: the right shoulder marker (92%, p=0.0316), the right mid-clavicle marker (47%, p=0.0478), and the right-front marker on the head band (28%, p=0.0182). Use of floor-mounted, arm rest controls versus seat-mounted, arm rest controls

Jan 6, 2006

By C. Stephan, E. Weiss, J. Trackemas, M. Sapko

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Pittsburgh Research Laboratory (PRL), in collaboration with the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), the mining industry, and seal manufacturers recently conducted a series of full-scale experiments within the underground experimental mine at PRL’s Lake Lynn Laboratory. The purpose of the experiments was toe valuate the explosion-resistant characteristics of several new seal designs for rapid deployment during mine emergencies. These seals can be deployed in 6 to 10 hr and are capable of with standing explosion overpressures in excess of 140 kPa (20 psi). These novel seal designs use available mine materials, do not require conventional rib hitching, and, most importantly, can substantially reduce exposure time for coal miners during sealing and mine recovery operations.

By Joseph Cervik, Gerald L. Finfinger

The Bureau of Mines conducted an experimental degasification project in Island Creek Coal Co.'s Virginia Pocahontas No. 5 mine. Methane from the over- lying Pocahontas No. 4 coalbed was entering mine workings in the Pocahontas No. 3 coalbed through fractures in the roof rock. Small-diameter (1-5/8-inch) holes were drilled into the overlying coalbed to reduce the gas pressure and intercept methane flows, which were piped to the surface through an under- ground 6-inch-diam steel pipeline. The total methane flow rate from the vertical holes averaged 150,000 ft3/day for the first month. Methane flows into the mine were reduced by 47 pct, thereby demonstrating the effectiveness of this form of degasification in reducing ventilation requirements and providing a safer working environment.

Jan 1, 1979

By C. J. Chindgren

The Bureau of Mines investigated the technical problems involved in recovering commercial-grade vanadium products from alkaline solutions of low vanadium content. Conditions were defined for precipitating calcium vanadates from sodium vanadate solutions with calcium chloride and calcium hydroxide and for dissolving the precipitates with acid, sodium carbonate, and sodium bicarbonate to obtain vanadium-enriched solutions from which either red cake or ammonium metavanadate was recovered. Calcium vanadates with CaO:V205 mole ratios of 2, 3, and 4 were produced with recoveries of 93 to 100 percent. Optimum recovery of the low-lime variety of calcium vanadate was obtained by employing excess calcium chloride and adjusting the pH to a range of 8.0 to 8.5. High vanadium extractions were obtained in concentrated solutions by dissolving the calcium vanadate precipitates with any of the reagents tested. The resulting extracts contained 25 to 125 grams V205 per liter. Conventional procedures used to precipitate either red cake or ammonium metavanadate from the enriched solutions gave excellent vanadium recoveries.

Jan 1, 1967

By Frank D. Lamb

Pyrophyllite, a hydrous aluminum silicate (Al2 Si4O10 (OH)2 ) has been mined in North Carolina and marketed without beneficiation for the past 100 years, but recent demands for higher-grade material indicate that an economical concentration method is needed for at least a part of the pyrophyllite production. Past production has depended upon selective mining and hand sorting, which is often unsatisfactory because of the finely disseminated character of the ores. The major impurity in North Carolina pyrophyllite ores is quartz, which accounts for the abrasiveness of the commercial product. Since pyrophyllite is only slightly heavier than quartz, those ores cannot be beneficiated by simple gravity-concentration methods. Some separation can be attained by differential grinding and air classification because of the difference in hardness of the two minerals) but the separation is not sharp. Froth flotation of pyrophyllite from Quartz has never been attempted commercially, but if the demand for high-grade material is sufficient, it would seem that this process offers the most premise of being economically feasible.

Jan 1, 1950

Aluminum alloys are used in two broad classifications: wrought and cast. Wrought alloy products, which are formed into final shape by rolling, forging, extruding. etc., contain low percentages of alloying elements; whereas cast aluminum products, which generally are not worked before use, may contain higher percentages and a somewhat different selection of alloying elements. For example, wrought aluminum alloys usually contain less than one percent silicon and cast alloys contain as much as 18 per-cent silicon. While there are good techniques available for separating aluminum alloys from mixed scrap, there are no efficient ways to separate wrought aluminum from cast aluminum. The high levels of silicon, iron) copper, and zinc from the cast alloys make wrought-cast mixtures unacceptable for wrought alloy production. Consequently, separated wrought aluminum scrap commands a premium price on the market. Since increasing amounts of mixed aluminum alloys are being recovered from automobile scrap, this separation is important for efficient recycling of these alloys. Approach The difference in thermo-mechanical properties between the two classes of aluminum alloys is used as the basis for the separation process. Casting alloys lose their ductility within a certain temperature range while wrought alloys remain ductile. As temperature increases, aluminum alloys gradually become weaker, and at a certain temperature, each alloy loses strength and ductility due to incipient melting in localized areas. For casting alloys that temperature generally lies between 520° to 560° C, but it is above 600° C for most wrought alloys. Mild crushing, therefore, in the proper temperature range will result in complete fragmentation of the casting alloys but only plastic deformation of the wrought alloys. A simple screening step then is used to separate the oversize wrought pieces from the fragmented cast alloys.

Jan 1, 1984

By L. E. Jackson, E. W. Dean

One of the refining processes to which lubricating oils are frequently subjected effects a reduction in content of paraffin wax. The actual treatment usually involves chilling and filter pressing; the most important result accomplished from a commercial point of view is lowering of the ""cold test"" of the oil. The Bureau of Mines has recently had occasion to ascertain the effect of changes in paraffin wax content upon the viscosity of oil and has conducted a series of experiments described in the present report.Object of the present investigation:The Bureau of Mines has devised and is using a method for the analysis of crude petroleum* which includes determination of the viscosities of lubricating oil distillates. The Bureau method does not provide for preliminary removal of paraffin wax, and it has seemed advisable to determine whether this omission causes any important variation from the results that would be obtained through commercial refinery processing. It was also thought that the present tests, though limited in scope, might be of some practical value in indicating the general effect of paraffin content upon one of the most important properties of lubricating oil.Experimental procedureA five-gallon sample of Pennsylvania crude petroleum was distilled at atmospheric pressure until 50 per cent of the charge had been vaporized. Two liters of the residuum was distilled at a reduced pressure of 40 mm. (absolute) and cuts were separated that came over between the temperature limits of 250° to 275° C. (462° to 527° F.) and 275° to 300° C. (527° to 572° F.). The viscosities of these fractions were determined and they were subsequently subjected to treatment that removed successive percentages of paraffin wax. Viscosity temperature curves were determined for the oil obtained after each removal of wax.

May 1, 1921

By Lambert Dolphin, George Oetzel, Robert Bollen

An electromagnetic sounder developed for an archaeological application in Egypt has been successfully tested in a California dolomite mine. Chambers in the mine 100 to 130 feet from the surface gave intense, well-defined echoes consistent with an average attenuation coefficient of 0.6dB/m and a relative dielectric constant of 11. By moving the transmitter and receiver units on the hillside above the underground chambers, various characteristics of the propagation could be observed such as dispersion, chamber aspect sensitivity and cross section. The transmitted pulse was one to one-and-a-half radio-frequency cycles long at a peak power of 0.2 MW. Frequencies employed were 16 to 50 MHz. The light weight, highly portable, battery-powered equipment is potentially suited to other underground sounding applications.

Jan 1, 1973

By Peter F. Steidl

Seven degasification wells have been completed in the Pittsburgh coalbed at the new Emerald mine near Waynesburg, Pa. Funding was provided by the Bureau of Mines to perform stimulation treatments on five of the wells, to show that this is a feasible and economical means of degasifying part of a coalbed. The seven wells ranged in depth from 590 to 910 feet. Stimulation treatments used 25,260 to 42,660 gallons of foam and 7,400 to 12,800 pounds of 20/40-mesh prop sand. Pumping rates were 10.8 to 11.6 bbl/min and treating pressures were from 1,050 to 1,600 psig. On the day following stimulation, gas production ranged from a few hundred cubic feet per day to more than 100,000 cu ft/day.

Jan 1, 1978

By A. T. Iannacchione

Underground stone mining represents an emerging sector for the U.S. mining industry. As this expansion takes mines under deeper cover and as more efficient mining methods are utilized, adequate stone pillar design methods will become more important. It is the purpose of this paper to examine current design practices and to discuss issues for safe mine layouts so that a rational first approach towards balancing the demands for increased production can be weighed against increased risk to worker safety from rib instabilities and pillar failures. Seventy-two stone mine pillar designs were examined. Pillars with width-to- height ratios below 1.5 and subjected to excessive stress levels appear more likely to fail. When width-to- height ratios fall below 1 .O, defects in the pillars, such as through-going discontinuities, can have a significant influence on stability. Discontinuity persistence, dip, material properties, and orientation are important factors controlling pillar strength. The influence of discontinuity dip, a characteristic easily identified in the field, was examined so that its presence could be accounted for in developing generalized guidelines for pillar design.

By V. F. Parry

 The amount of energy required to support a unit volume of industrial production appears to depend on the volume of industrial production, effi- ciency of utilization of fuel, the form of energy used, climate, and popula- tion served. Previous to the first World War, industries of the United States were learning how to use the vast resources of energy that were available. From 1895 to 1900 the total amount of energy produced was equivalent to 3.7 tons of 13,100 B.t.u. coal per capita, but from that period until 1920 the energy used increased steadily until it reached an average of 7.7 tons per capita. Since that time the amount used has fluctuated with business con- ditions and has averaged 6.9 tons per capita.

Jan 1, 1943

By Dennis R. Dolinar

Screen material in the form of welded wire mesh and geogrids are used in underground coal mines to prevent the fall of small pieces of rock from the roof between roof bolts. Further, if the screen is installed during the production cycle, roof fall injuries can be reduced significantly. Therefore, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), because of the safety implications, conducted an evaluation of screen materials commonly used in U.S. coal mines to determine their support characteristics and identify the parameters that could affect their performance with respect to controlling the fall of rock from the roof surface. To evaluate the load and stiffness characteristics of the screen, a test frame was designed and installed in the Mine Roof Simulator (MRS) at the NIOSH Pittsburgh Research Laboratory (PRL). With this test set up, the screen is bolted at four corners of the frame and a center load is applied. The test set up allows for up to 20 in of screen deflection while the load and screen defection are continuously recorded. A series of tests were conducted to evaluate the effects of various parameters such as bolt tension, the type of load bearing surface and the size of bearing plates on welded screen performance. The most common screen material used in U. S. coal mines is an 8-gauge wire welded in a 4-by-4-in spacing or aperture. The peak screen load was normally limited by wire breakage. The conditions at the bearing plate influence the nature of the wire breakage. However, the screen stiffness was controlled by slippage at the bearing plates, and by weld and wire failure. The size of the bearing plate had a significant effect on the performance of the welded screen. Therefore, the design capacity of the 8-gauge screen is evaluated based on plate size. For a 6-by-6-in bearing plate the average peak load is 2,900 lb with a stiffness of 250 lb/in. For an 8-by-8-in bearing plate, the average peak load is 4,500 lb with a stiffness of 430 lb/in. These test results are based on a 4-by-4-ft bolt spacing. A geogrid mesh was also tested.

The Bureau of Mines believes that all coal mines are potentially gassy; for the purpose of administration in the prevention of explosions and fires, the Bureau recommends: That any coal mine wherein methane or other combustible gas can be detected in amounts as much as 0.27 of 1 percent or more by frequent systematic searches shall be classified as a gassy mine. Permissible methane-indicating detectors such as are given in I.C. 7110 or subsequent lists of Bureau approved methane-indicating detectors, or conventional methods of sampling and analysis of required accuracy may be used. The concentration referred to in the decision is percent by volume.

Jan 1, 1941

1. Mining to prevent and control underground acid formation should begin with education imparted through: (A) Course work at mining schools to teach prospective engineers. (B) Training of engineers presently employed in the mining industry through appropriate mining extension courses. 2. Considerable need exists to devote more attention to: (A) Hydrogeologic studies of mining areas to enhance the planning of new mines and the abatement program of existing mines. (B) Additional research to explore methods of dewatering the strata associated with mining areas. (C) Further effort to develop sealants for preventing contact between water or oxygen and the acid producing material associated with the coal seam.

Jan 1, 1970

By W. P. Yant

Publication of lists of the devices for giving respiratory protection which have been approved by the U. S. Bureau of Mines is made periodically for the purpose of aiding consumers in procuring equipment .374/ The last published list , approved to March 15 , 1935 , appeared as Information Circular 6845 with the same title as this article . The schedules of requirements and tests which the devices must meet in order to obtain approval are published 2/6/1/8/ by the Bureau of tests the devices must Mines and are available to the public . It is pertinent to mention that the preparation of a schedule of requirements for fresh-air supply devices of the types commonly known as positive -pressure respirators , airline respirators , sand- blast helmets , and hoods , has been practically completed and will soon be ready for release to the public .

Oct 1, 1936

By Joseph J. Wallace

1. The Pocahontas No. 3 and Pocahontas No. 6 ere the two most important beds in Mercer County from the standpoint of present production and recoverable reserves. 2. Known measured and indicated reserves in all beds, based on a minimum thickness of 14 inches and 1,800 tons per acre-foot of coal in place, are estimated at 188 million short tons as of January l, 1953. Of this total, 80 million short tons are in beds 28 inches and more thick. Areas in each bed were omitted from the estimate because available data relative to the bed characteristics are too meager to make an estimate that conforms with the definitions of measured and indicated coal adopted for this study. Should future drilling or development prove reserves in these areas, such reserves should be added to the total estimated reserves.

Jan 1, 1954

By Joan C. Biordi

The Bureau of Mines used molecular beam-mass spectrometry to determine the microstructure of a 10.1% CH4-2l.2% 02-67.6% Ar-1.1% CF3Br inhibited flame and its uninhibited analog, both stabilized at 32 torr on a cooled flat-flame burner. Composition profiles of atomic, radical, and stable species and temperature profiles for both flames were obtained and compared. Kinetic analyses of the profiles yielded values for the rate coefficients of several elementary methane flame reactions and information on the reactions of formation and decay of the observed halocarbon species. CF3Br is judged to decay by thermal decomposition as well as by abstraction reactions, and the fluorocarbon chemistry occurring in the inhibited flame is due primarily to CF2 radical reactions. Rate coefficients and mechanisms for reactions of the inhibitor-related species are given.

Jan 1, 1978

By J. P. Baur

The sensitivity of radiochemical techniques makes possible the study of the initial-stage sulfuric acid leaching kinetics of chalcopyrite and other copper sulfide minerals. This Bureau of Mines study of the initial leaching of chalcopyrite used techniques to evaluate the molecular and electrochemical processes. High-grade Transvaal chalcopyrite was neutron-irradiated in a TRIGA reactor4 to produce radioisotopes copper-64, iron-59, and sulfur-35. Dissolution rates were measured in the time interval zero to 60 minutes, during which time significant anomalies were observed. First was an initial period of rapid dissolution lasting a few minutes; second, an arrest or ?plateau? region usually lasting from 6 to 10 minutes; third, a second period of dissolution of lesser rate than the first. The effects of solution variables such as pH, oxygen partial pressure, and ferric ion concentration at different temperatures were measured.

Jan 1, 1974

By Arthur M. Hartstein

The Bureau of Mines, through contract with Ultrasystems, Inc., obtained data on the oxidative degradative behavior of a number of materials used in coal mines. Tests were performed using a stagnation burner arrangement. Materials examined included those used in typical coal mining operations such as (1) polyvinyl chloride-containing materials. (2) neoprene compositions, (3) rigid foams (urethanes/isocyanates), (4) miscellaneous materials (including jute, fiber glass, and polyethylene), (5) coal, (6) fluids (phosphate esters, organic esters, oil-water emulsions), and (7) composites. The composite comprised a mixture of a phosphate ester fluid with (1) coal, (2) a representative polyvinyl chloride sample, or (3) a neoprene-type composition. A number of decomposition products are identified that could represent a potential health hazard to miners including HC1, CO, SO2 and H2S, if they were generated to exceed toxic levels.

Jan 1, 1974

By S. J. Hussey

A jig tailing with gold content ranging from 0.33 to 0.43 oz/ton was leached in weak cyanide solution with extractions of up to 97 pct in 24 hours. By countercurrent batch leaching studies and laboratory pilot plant operation, minus 10- plus 20-mesh and minus 6- plus 16-mesh coconut carbon were loaded to 700 oz/ton of Au. Minor silver in the ore reported in the carbon in amounts of up to 100 oz/ton. Gold adsorption rate data and an equilibrium adsorption curve for minus 10- plus 20-mesh carbon at ambient temperatures were developed and used in the successful application of a cascade design theory. The work was performed as a part of the overall Bureau of Mines research effort to help maintain an adequate domestic supply of metals by making improvements in mineral-processing technology.

Jan 1, 1979