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By A. Andreas

New Mexico established an annual record by producing 38,897,741 bbl. of oil during 1940. This was approximately 6 per cent greater than the 1939 production of 36,746,840 bbl. The daily average produc-tion was 106,569 bbl. New Mexico retained its position as the seventh oil-producing state. The recommendations of the United States Bureau of Mines were followed by the Oil Conservation Commission in setting the monthly state allowable. At the beginning of the year the average top allowable for each qc-acre unit was 40 bbl. and at the close of the year it was 36 bbl. Remedial work by the operators has been extremely beneficial and satisfactory in reducing the gas-oil ratios in various fields. Gas formerly blown into the air is now being processed by numerous casinghead plants. The Oil Conservation Commission, with the full cooperation of the Proration Office and operators, has taken bottom-hole pressure surveys and has done considerable remedial work in various fields. Two new oil fields and one gas field were discovered in New Mexico during 1940. Numerous extensions to the existing fields were made. Some of these were definitely wildcats in the same townships designated as fields and some, although called extensions, were more than 3 miles from production. Lea County continued to be the largest oil-producing county in the state, with a production of 33,976,394 bbl. It had the largest number of completions during 1940, with 303 oil wells, 9 gas wells and 13 dry holes—a total of 325 wells. Eddy County was the next most active county, with 239 completions, of which 163 were oil wells, 8 gas wells and 68 dry holes. It produced 4,405,158 bbl. of oil during the year. The increased activity in Eddy County and the completion of a large number of producing oil wells have created a transportation problem that can be solved only by additional pipe-line facilities. During the year Eddy County was unable to produce 1,500,000 bbl. of its allowable oil, because there was no pipe-line outlet. There were 601 wells completed in New Mexico in 1940, of which 478 were oil wells, 22 gas wells and IOI dry holes. This was a decline of approximately 9.5 per cent in the number of completions compared with 1939, when 659 wells were drilled. Southeastern New Mexico Lea County.—The largest producing field in Lea County was the Monument field, with 6,894,475 bbl.; followed by Eunice with 6,559,348 bbl. and Vacuum with 4,743,065 bbl. The Hobbs pool, which for years was the largest producing field in the state of New Mexico, was fourth with 3,790,477 bbl. The Vacuum pool was the most active area, having 68 completions, of which 67 were oil wells and one was a dry hole. Only one new field was discovered in Lea County during 1940; the discovery well was in the Caprock area, the Livermore State No. I, in the SE. 1/4 SE. 1/4 sec. 30, T. 12 S, R. 32 E. This well was drilled to a

Jan 1, 1941

By John Johnston

WHEN I was honored by being invited to give the Howe Memorial Lecture, I decided to read Howe's book, "The Metallography of Steel and Cast Iron," published in 1916-that is, about 25 years ago-in search of a text. I found the book written in fine, clear, attractive, yet precise style, as I expected, knowing that his father Dr. Samuel Gridley Howe, his mother Julia Ward Howe, and all of his four brothers and sisters had lived in a New England literary atmosphere and had written books. This leads me to suggest that many authors of metallurgical papers and books could well study Howe's writings with a view to the improvement of their own. I failed to find a specific text, but did find a subject, for in reading his book I was struck by the few instances in which time is considered explicitly as a factor in the phenomena examined, and by the fact that many of the hottest arguments would have been settled had time been taken properly into account. Indeed, Howe hardly mentions time except in a rather incidental way, as in a few references to lag; for instance: The lowering of temperature at which the transformation occurs by rapid cooling . . . is a phenomenon of undercooling or lag. It is in part explained by the fact that the transformation itself is a time-consuming reaction which, setting in during a rapid fall of temperature, is naturally protracted till the temperature has sunk far below that at which it is due. He does discuss, quite fully, the iron-carbon equilibrium diagram, as known at that time, introducing it by stating: As he is a reasonable man who is not deterred from using a hand' truck for moving his trunk by the consideration that he has thus to move a trunk plus a truck, so am I reasonable in putting into your hands this useful, indeed indispensable, tool for mastering the ABC of iron metallurgy. Somewhat later, in introducing a discussion of the phase rule, which "it would be hardly proper to pass ... by without an attempt to outline its meaning," for "a clear exposition of its applicability or jurisdiction is needed to restrain the half¬initiated from misusing it and the uninitiated from being misled by these misuses," he writes-and I quote his statement because we cannot properly discuss the influence of time on a process until we know the state of equilibrium which would ultimately be reached by the system under consideration: It is a most remarkable and valuable generalization, its conceptions help greatly toward getting a broad outlook on metallography, but its misconception has brought out a flood of obscuring writings. It tells us about the constitution towards which alloys tend, that which they reach when equilibrium is complete, when all tendencies have corrected themselves and have been complied with completely. Its application, in absence of true equilibrium, is like determining density with a telescope or even with a tuning fork; it is like the mad tea party at which the butter put into the works of the watch was the best butter. If the reader learns no more than to beware of attempts to decipher the conditions of inequilibrium by a law which touches only the conditions of exact

Jan 1, 1942

By David Keys

THE actual procedure in estimating depth of overburden from mag-netic observations made on the surface will vary with the form of the deposit and any theoretical discussion will apply only so far as the form of the deposit conforms to the mathematical premises on which the theory is based. Since the shapes of natural deposits in the field cannot be expressed rigorously in mathematical form, the best that can be done is to assume some simple form and deduce results. Fortunately many small variations in form produce only slight changes in the estimated depth of overburden, therefore the methods have a definite practical value. For the theoretical treatment, magnetic ore deposits may be divided roughly into three classes, depending upon whether the magnetic anom-alies may be considered to arise from (1) a single magnetic pole, (2) a dike or (3) a magnetic doublet. Particular cases, falling under one or other of these classes, have been discussed by different authors.1-4 In general, it may be stated that when the magnetic effects as measured on the surface are due only to one pole of the body, the other pole being so remote that its effect may be neglected, the resultant anomaly F at any point will vary as the inverse square of the distance r of the point from the pole, which may be expressed mathematically by F = k/r2, where k is a constant. When the deposit occurs in the form of a long, thin dike, the resultant anomaly will be of the form F = k'/r and when the deposit is in the shape of a lens, so that both poles have an appreciable effect on the surface, the result will be similar to that caused by a magnetic doublet, and the form will be F = k'/r3. The particular class under which a deposit falls may be deduced from the results of the magnetic survey. The second class is readily found, but there may be difficulty in deciding between the first and third. Isody-namic contours of both the vertical and horizontal anomalies will often be a good guide in making a correct decision.

Jan 1, 1937

By James Marsh

INTRODUCTION Economists have long expressed suspicion of the economic theory of natural resource exhaustion, even in writing articles which have contributed to it (1). Indeed, the gap which separates the pure theory from practical management seems unusually wide. It is doubtful whether a mine manager could possibly know enough about the relevant parameters of his mine to steer it along the optimal paths described by the theorists (2). Nevertheless, enough faith in the theory remains that mine managers are suspected of being a separate breed whose behavior must be studied in special courses using specialized text-books, collections of readings, and journals (3). The implied hypothesis, that mines and natural resource firms are managed differently than other firms, is the subject of this paper. In the next section the theory is developed and analyzed. In section III, I discuss the implications of the statistical results that have been obtained. Finally, conclusions are reserved for section IV. THE MODEL A key difference between the traditional theory of natural resource production and that of other forms lies in the set of variables which ire assumed to jointly determine the quantity of output the firm will produce. Output, in the non-resource case, is assumed to be a function of k clearly definable and distinguishable inputs or factors of production, viz., y = f(xl, x2, ..., xk), (1) here

Jan 1, 1977

By Robert S. Lewis

Park City, Utah, elevation 7200 ft., is on the eastern slope of the Wasatch Mountains about 25 miles southeast of Salt Lake City, elevation 4200 ft. The town and surrounding mining district are served by two railroads: one, 28 miles long, is a branch of the Union Pacific R. R. and joins the main line at Echo; the other, 35 miles long, connects with the main line of the Denver & Rio Grande R. R. at Salt Lake City. The main shaft and important mine buildings, elevation about 8200 ft., of the Silver King Coalition Mines Co. are 11/2 miles by road to the southwest of Park City, and are near the head of Woodside Gulch. The property of this company is a consolidation of several groups of mining claims, and comprises an area that is roughly 4 miles long by 1 mile wide, the long axis of which has a N. 55" E. bearing. Geology A general geologic section through the property shows a basal formation of gray quartzite, called the Weber quartzite, above which seems to lie conformably the Park City formation. Both beds are of Carboniferous age. The Park City strata consist of a number of beds of limestone, with intercalated beds of quartzite, sandstone, and shale. The exact thickness is difficult to determine, but is apparently between 650 and 850 ft. Above the Park City beds and conformable with them lie the Woodside Shales. These thinly bedded fine-grained shales, about 1000 ft. in the thickness, are of no economic importance. They are overlain conformably by the Thaynes formation, which has about the same thickness and is composed of beds of limestone, sandstone, and shale. A thin bed of shale divides the formation into an upper and a lower part; the upper part contains more lime than the lower part. The Woodside shales and the Thaynes formation are of Triassic age. All the beds dip northwest, the dip is usually from 20" to 30°, but may be as great as 40°. In places, intrusions of diorite porphyry have deformed the beds. Marked faulting in zones of a northeast-southwest trend occurred after the intrusion of the porphyry. Later faulting in a

Jan 1, 1925

NAME AND OBJECT. SEc. 1. This Institute is incorporated under the Membership Corporations law of the State of New York ; its corporate name is American Institute of Mining Engineers; and its objects are such as are stated in its Certificate of Incorporation. ARTICLE II. MEMBERS. SEC. 1. The membership of the Institute shall comprise four classes, namely 1. Members ; 2. Honorary Members ; 3. Associates ; 4. Junior Members. All members shall be equally entitled to the privileges of membership, except¬ing that Honorary Members, Junior Members, and Members and Associates whose residences shall be outside of the United States, Mexico, and Canada shall not be entitled to vote. Members and Associates residing within the United States of America, Mexico, and Canada, and not in arrears for dues, shall be entitled to vote in person at the meetings of the Institute, or, as hereinafter provided for, by letter ballot. SEC. 2. The following classes of persons shall be eligible for membership in the Institute, namely : as Members, all professional mining . engineers, geologists, metallurgists, or chemists, and all persons actively engaged in mining and metal¬lurgical engineering, geology, or chemistry ; as Associates, all persons desirous of being connected with the Institute who in the opinion of the Board of Directors are suitable.

Jan 1, 1923

Secondary blast holes are now being pierced in quartzite and sandstone quarries, using multiple hand-operated Jet-Piercing units supplied with oxygen, fuel and water from a compact mobile carrier. A unit of this type, operating in a Canadian quarry, enabled four Jet-Piercing blowpipes to pierce blast holes for two hours without shutdown. The piercing blowpipes used were developed by Linde Air Products Co., a division of Union Carbide and Carbon Corp. The mobile supply carrier was constructed by the quarry from specifications supplied by Linde and modified by the quarry operators for their particular use. Employment of the new self-contained unit, which allows up to four operators to pierce approximately 450 ft of blast hole without shutdown, accelerates rock removal operations. Normally, only two blowpipes are in operation at one time. Large boulders or ledges, which sometimes remain after primary blasting to hamper loading operations, can, in the case of certain hard rock, be prepared for reduction more rapidly with these new units than by any other means. A special feature of the new manual Jet-Piercing unit is the mobile gas and fluid supply carrier. It consists of a standard truck chassis fitted out with four banks of large standard-capacity oxygen cylinders, a steel-holding tank for fuel oil, and a gasoline-driven air compressor and tank for pressurizing the fuel oil tank. Cooling water for the blowpipes is supplied to the unit from a hose extension to the quarry supply line. Feeder lines from the oxygen cylinder manifolds and the oil and water tanks terminate in four sets of take-off stations on the control panel at the rear of the truck. As many as four hand Jet-Piercing blowpipes can be connected to the take-off panel by high-pressure rubber hoses. The hand Jet-Piercing blowpipe used with the mobile supply carrier is a highly portable device which can be manipulated comfortably by one operator. The blowpipe can pierce blast holes at rates up to 60 ft per hour, depending on the properties of the rock. Blast holes can be pierced at any angle from the vertical to the horizontal, making it necessary for the operator to drill from the top of the boulder. Hole diameter is held to approximately that which allows the use of a standard 11/8-in. diameter dynamite. The manual Jet-Piercing blowpipe has these important design features: a burner from which the combustion gases emerge at supersonic speeds (in excess of 6000 ft per sec); a hole-sizing shell which controls the minimum size of the hole and protects the copper burner; and a sliding shield which protects the operator against the steam and spallings ejected from the hole during the piercing. The Jet piercing process has been applied successfully in United States and Canadian quarries within the last several years as an advanced method of "drilling" blast holes.

Jan 1, 1952

By George B. Clark

Many basic engineering principles of all four phases of mining operations, namely, prospecting, exploration, development, and exploitation, can be analyzed better in terms of quantitative geology. Geological data from both field and laboratory will also complement scientific methods now being developed. THE geological data emphasized so successfully in prospecting for new deposits, that is, structural controls, strength of solutions, and type of mineralization, are basically those required for successful exploitation. In the mining of newly discovered deposits the most economical methods should be employed as early as possible to keep the overall cost per unit produced at a minimum and to permit maximum extraction of valuable minerals. A crucial question is: How can geological data be translated into useful quantitative results which will aid in achieving this end? H. E. McKinistry' has suggested that a solution may be reached in one of two ways: 1—the usual approach, use of judgment based on experience; or 2—mathematical calculations and tests on models, both subject to certain limitations. He also suggests that in addition to better use of geology more case data and theoretical data are needed on which to base sound judgment. Further research, therefore, is necessary. Perhaps in this field the emphasis should be on more specialization in mining methods and ground movement by men with thorough training in physics, engineering, geology, and underground mining. These specialists would be equipped to point out the most economical and scientific methods of exploitation. Selection of a stoping method is governed by the amount and type of support a deposit will require in the process of being mined, or by the possibility of employing the structure of the deposit to advantage in mining the ore by a caving method. In addition to these factors there are others which almost invariably influence the choice of an economical method of mining:' 1—strength of ore and wall rocks; 2—shape, horizontal area, volume, and regularity of the boundaries of the orebody, and thickness, dip and/or pitch of the deposit and individual ore shoots; 3—grade, distribution of minerals, and continuity of the ore within the boundaries of the deposit; 4—depth below surface and nature of the capping or overburden: and 5—position of the de- posit relative to surface improvements, drainage, and other mine openings. In the final analysis it is usually necessary to disregard the less important of these factors to satisfy the requirements of the more important. Because of the variation of geological conditions throughout and surrounding the deposit, no mining method will be everywhere ideally applicable to the conditions encountered in one ore deposit. The immediate problem is to interpret the above physical characteristics of deposits in terms of geological characteristics. Very few quantitative geological data are available on the factors related to a choice of mining methods. However, there are many descriptive data in mining and geological literature which collectively show how important an effect details of geology have upon all phases of mining operations. The following categories of basic mining methods were investigated to establish the geological factors that have affected their successful application: 1— open stopes with pillars; 2—sublevel stoping; 3— shrinkage stoping; 4—cut-and-fill stoping; 5— square-set mining; 6—top slicing and sublevel caving; and 7—block caving. It should be noted that the first five of these methods are listed in the order of increasing support requirements. Mines were selected as examples only where geological descriptions were complete enough to warrant their use. A study of the geological factors involved in mining operations led to a choice of the following classifications, employed in Table I: 1—structural type of orebody; 2—dimensions (geometry); 3— country rock (type); 4—faulting, folding, and fracturing; 5—alteration of ore and rock; 6—type of mineralization; and 7—geological factors determining mining method (summary). Of these factors only one yielded results that can be defined from available data in a quantitative manner, i.e., dimensions of the deposit. These are the most reliable guides that can be used in selection of suitable mining methods. They are, in general, the properties of geologic structure most difficult to evaluate by studies of models, pho-toelastic studies, and other laboratory methods, all of which are at present more limited in their applications than the geologic method. Application of geology has proved a reliable guide in other phases

Jan 1, 1955

By K. P. Stricker, H. Keddeinis, K. Grebe

Recent investigations by Mannesmann Research have shown that disintegration of sinter with widely varying quality levels is subject to a much more complex set of influences than was previously assumed. It was confirmed that disintegration at temperatures between 300° and 600°C (570°and 1,110°F) is triggered by the degradation of hematite. The specific tendency of hematite to disintegrate is, however, not constant: sinters containing the same amount of hematite can show widely differing disintegration tendencies, depending on structural homogeneity, porosity, and gangue quantity. Sinters with heterogeneous structures transmit stress to the hematite phase and this favors disintegration. Another factor is the brittleness of the glassy silicate phase, which can be influenced even by small modifications of minor gangue constituents.

Jan 1, 1984

By Fred Allison

THE magneto-optic method of analysis had its origin in experiments1 which were designed to detect and measure a time lag in the Faraday effect and later to study this time lag as a function of the wave length of the light.2 Faraday discovered in 1845 that a beam of plane polarized light, when passed through a transparent, isotropic medium traversed by a magnetic field of force parallel to the direction of the light, suffers a rotation. The direction of rotation is reversed with the reversal of the magnetic field and its magnitude depends upon the strength of the field, the length of the path of light in the substance and the nature of the substance. This phenomenon of magnetic rotation is known as the Faraday effect. A question which had been of some interest for years was whether this power of a liquid to rotate polarized light is acquired instantly with the application of the magnetic field, that is, whether it is a case of instantaneity or whether there is a very small interval of time which intervenes between the application of the magnetic field and the consequent rotation of the light by the liquid; in other words, whether there is a time lag in the Faraday effect. Efforts to measure such a lag previously had met with failure. It was recognized at the outset' that since a time lag had escaped detection it must be extremely small, if to a measurable extent it exists at all. It became necessary therefore to adopt a timing device capable of making measures of almost infinitesimally small intervals. The velocity of light served as this timing device, a modification of a method originally employed by Abraham and Lemoine3 being adapted to the requirements of the problem. Since light travels about 30 cm. in a billionth of a second and since settings in our observations may be repeated with deviations not exceeding 3 mm.,

Jan 1, 1932

By Clement K. Chase

ION exchange recovery of uranium has been proved successful in many operating plants in various parts of the world. First used in column plants processing clear liquors, ion exchange has more recently been applied in basket resin-in-pulp systems. A logical further development is the application of truly continuous processing techniques to the ion exchange recovery of metals, since previous systems have been semicontinuous at best. Column ion exchange is a valuable technique and has been used extensively in South Africa and elsewhere. However, it requires clear liquors. To produce these clear liquors, considerable investment in filter plant and clarification equipment is necessary. In the cases where it is very difficult or impossible to produce clarified liquors, column ion exchange is not so useful. Moreover, some liquors suffer from post-precipitation after clarification, which can become a serious problem.

Jan 9, 1957

By Percy Gillie

THE Tralee preparation plant, owned and operated by the Semet-Solvay division of Allied Chemical and Dye Corp., is located on the Virginian railway, near Mullens, Wyoming County, W. Va., and the mine, which is in the Winding Gulf district, produces coal exclusively from Pocahontas No. 3 seam. The property, comprising 4900 acres, is leased from the Pocahontas Land Corp. Prior to 1930 four separate mines were operated in this tract, some having been started about 1916. Plans for the preparation plant were formulated soon after World War 11. Construction began in the spring of 1948, operation early in 1950. The plant was designed to be operated with minimum labor. It was equipped for production of first quality graded sizes of coal for house heating and 3/8x0-in. slack suitable for high-standard metallurgical coke. In the beginning, a thorough investigation was made of the property by means of core drilling, prospect openings, and sections from shallow mines on the property, as well as sections and analyses from mines in the immediate vicinity. After the extent of desirable coal had been established and the average seam section and nature of overlying and underlying strata had been determined, it was decided to install a system of mining which would load the full seam and would clean the product mechanically. Pocahontas No. 3 seam is characterized by draw slate and bone and rock partings. It was not known what the washing difficulties and cleaning plant requirements would be for processing the raw product of full mechanical mining. Arrangements were made, therefore, through the courtesy of the property owner, to obtain a large sample from a section of the mine along the adjoining property line. The

Jan 1, 1954

By D. W. Lillie

Property changes produced by irradiation of Al-0.4 wt pet Li alloys at 270°C to a burnup of 0.155 pct of all atoms are described. Metallographic evidence of the formation of internal pores and the concentration of gases at grain boundaries is shown. Some conclusions are drawn concerning desirable property characteristics for resistance to radiation swelling. RADIATION induced gases are of great practical significance in nuclear engineering since they affect the behavior of fissionable fuels and control rod materials. In fuels the gases xenon and krypton are the major offenders, producing serious em-brittlement at low irradiation temperatures and gross swelling at high irradiation temperatures. In control rod materials containing boron, the production of helium from the B 10 (n, 0) Li7 reaction produces similar reactions. Since the trend in reactor design is for operation at increasingly high temperatures, the phenomenon of high-temperature swelling by these induced gases has been the subject of considerable recent study. The objectives of such work have been to obtain engineering information and quantitative data on the effects in specific fuels and control rods and to obtain further understanding of the mechanism of gas damage so that more intelligent corrective steps can be made. Analogue systems are often useful for the latter objective and in this case alloys containing Li are suitable in view of the reaction Li6 + n - He4 + He 4. Both products are gases and no serious radiation problem is produced to complicate post irradiation handling. Considerable caution is, of course, necessary in any operations in which tritium release is possible. The present program was initiated to provide a detailed study of the effects of He + H3 generated by irradiation in Li-bearing alloys. The results on Mg-Li solid solution alloys have been reported elsewhere.' This paper presents information on irradiation of an A1-0.4 pct Li alloy in which the lithium was present as highly enriched Li6 in order to maximize the radiation burnup. PROCEDURE The original intent in the selection of the alloy content was to have Li in solid solution at all temperatures. It became apparent, however, that the solubility of Li in A1 was substantially lower than that reported in the original reference consulted.' This was substantiated by the work of Nowak3 who reported solubility of less than 0.01 pct Li at 100°C. The alloy used (0.4 pct Li) was therefore two phase at room temperature. The irradiation temperature was estimated to be about 270° C, and at that temperature all or almost all of the Li would be soluble under equilibrium conditions. The precise state of the alloy under irradiation is not known. Aluminum used was 99.996 pct purity (max. impurities Si 0.002 pct, Mg 0.001 pct, Fe 0.0005 pct, and Cu 0.0005 pct). The lithium was obtained from Oak Ridge National Laboratory; 96.1 + 0.1 pct of the lithium was ~i~, but chemical impurities were 0.25 pct Ca, 0.05 pct Fe, 0.02 pct Na, 0.02 pct Cu, 0.01 pct Sr, and 0.01 pct Ba. The two metals were melted in an alumina crucible in a resistance heated furnace in an atmosphere of helium. A l-in. ingot was cast in an iron mold, machined to %-in. round, hot swaged (350°C) to 0.080-in. round, cold swaged to 0.060-in. round, and finally cold drawn to 0.040-in. round. Four-inch wire lengths were then cut and annealed at 250°C for 4 hr in helium. Irradiations were carried out in a VT hole in the Argonne CP-5 reactor. The wires were held in an aluminum jig, sixteen wires per capsule, and were maintained in a helium atmosphere for maximum heat transfer. Eight wires of pure aluminum and eight of Al-Li alloy were placed in each capsule. Argome Laboratory statements were accepted as establishing flux and exposure levels. These were based on previous experience and flux map-

Jan 1, 1961

By O. E. Kiessling

THE present system of competitive exploitation of oil pools results in losses, both of petroleum and of profits. Under a competitive system the owner produces or withholds his product according to the price, which reflects the demand, but in the pe-troleum industry the producer does not have complete control over the expansion and contraction of his out-put. Under a series of court decisions, reviewed in detail in the paper, petroleum is not covered by- the general theory of English common law that the owner of land owns everything from the center of the earth to the sky within the areal limits of his property, but is considered to be his only when he has reduced it. to possession, which he can only do by taking it out of the ground. If A can obtain possession of the petro-leum which is beneath the property of B without tres-passing on B's property he commits no legal wrong and B has no defense except to get it into his (surface) possession before A takes it. No one would expect an. owner under such a system to forego the possibility of securing some oil from his property in order to in-crease the ultimate production of the pool. The pe-troleum industry. should offer a constructive program, that will eliminate losses and protect the interests of individuals as far as possible. If improved methods of oil recovery can be applied the quantity of petroleum recovered might be double or even treble the amount recovered by ordinary procedure. But increased recovery is not the only benefit from pool development. In brief, the following advantages can be claimed for unit operation: 1. Saving in development and operating costs. 2. Less danger of damage to the fields by defective wells. 3. Development is better gaged to fit market demand and to effect the most efficient recovery of oil. 4. More oil, gas, and gasoline can be marketed. 5. By regulating pressures, recovery .of oil and gas will be greater and the wells will flow longer. Reagan County (Big Lake), Rainbow Bend and Cabin Creek are examples of longer life of pools thus obtained.

Jan 11, 1927

By P. R. Swann, R. M. Fisher, W. R. Duff

Observations by transmission electron microscoPy of the microstructures in quenched Fe-A1 alloys provide the basis for revision of the Fe-A1 phase diagram. The diagram is characterized by first-order transitions between the disordered ferromagnetic a! solid solution and the two ordered phases FeAl and Fe3Al. However, second-order transitions showing corre-luted fluctuations in the degree of order near the critical temperature occur between the paramagnetic a! and FeAl and the FeAl and FeAl phases. ELUCIDATION of the true nature of the Fe-A1 equilibrium diagram has proven to be an extremely challenging problem as evidenced by the fact that six quite different versions of the iron-rich portions have been published since 1958.&apos;-6 The most recent diagram shown in Fig. 1 was proposed by Rimlinger6 based on X-ray diffraction analysis and dilatometry. He shows the single-phase fields of the ordered phases of the types FeAl(L20) and Fe3A1(D03) and the disordered bcc Fe-A1 solid solution, a, separated from one another in every case by large two-phase regions. Thus, he implies that in Fe-A1 alloys ordering always occurs via a classical phase transition. In contrast to this view, theoretical studies3&apos;" have concluded that the transitions a — FeAl and FeAl — Fe3A1 should be second- or higher-order in character. A further revision of the Fe-A1 diagram of state is presented in Fig. 2 based on our previous8,9 and current observations by transmission electron microscopy of the microstructures found in quenched specimens. The average quenching rate was 50,000°C per sec and although this was sufficiently rapid to prevent Fe3A1-type ordering below -550°C it was not sufficient to suppress ordering of the type FeAl in the temperature range -650" to 800°C. However, ordering during the quench is easily recognized since the FeAl phase formed during holding at temperature rapidly develops large antiphase domains whereas FeAl formed during quenching has a very fine domain size, -50Å diam. Each symbol in Fig. 2 indicates the result of a micro-structural examination of specimens heat-treated (-1 hr) until equilibrium was established. The results will be discussed in the order of the points, A - Dl marked on both diagrams with reference to the phase fields, critical temperature, and "transition" ranges, respectively. The dark-field micrograph corresponding to point A is shown in Fig. 3 and was obtained using a 111 reflection of the Fe3A1 structure which reveals both a&apos;/4<111> and a&apos;/2<100> antiphase domain boundaries.10 The structure observed in this specimen is typical of single-phase Fe3A1 and shows no evidence for FeAl or any other additional phase. The dark-field micrograph shown in Fig. 4 corresponds to point B on the two diagrams. It was taken with a 100 FeAl reflection which reveals a/2(111) domains and exhibits the typical structure of single-

Jan 1, 1970

By M. P. E. Desvaux, P. Charsley

OLIP-line observations on copper alloys, using the electron microscope, have been made by a number of workers,13 but this work has been confined to a brass. In a CuAl alloys Koppenaal4 and Koppenaal and Fine5 have made observations with the optical microscope and by the use of interferometry. They found that the observed slip step heights inside the Liiders bands accounted for only 42 pet of the total macroscopic strain. The suggestion was put forward that optically unresolvable slip in other parts of the specimen accounted for a major part of the macroscopic strain. This is surprising since it is known from other workers that slip in a brass is inhomogeneous; i.e., large amounts of slip occur on individual {lll) closelys paced than being shared by a large number of closely spaced planes. Furthermore, a brass and a CuAl alloys with high concentration of aluminum exhibit similar deformation characteristics and slip-line patterns. Prior to investigations into the behavior of copper and a CuAl alloys under reversed stresses in tension and compression, some preliminary experiments have yielded results which the authors think resolve this discrepancy, and throw some further light on the behavior of a CuAl in tension. An experiment was carried out on a 10 at. pet CuAl single crystal, of gage length 7.5 cm, diameter 3.1 mm, and orientation shown in Fig. 3 (inset), for the purpose of resolving the above discrepancy. The specimen gage length was electropolished for 10 min in a 50:50 orthophosphoric acid (SG=1.75)-distilled water system, with 2 v across the cell and a current density of 0.5 amp per sq cm. The cathode was made of copper. After a tensile strain of 0.067 ± 0.001, intense slip was observed over a length 2 cm of the gage length whilst the rest of the specimen was relatively undeformed. In the lightly deformed region, slip bands of mean width 20 /x were spaced about 1 mm apart on average. The transition from the heavily slipped region (usually called a Liiders band) to the lightly deformed region was gradual, the slip-band density increasing as the "Liiders band" was approached. In the latter, the slip bands became so close together that, to the naked eye, the specimen appeared to be continously slipped, and the typical microtopography of this region is shown in Fig. 1. Twelve electron micrographs were taken at random from replicas of the Liiders-band region, and the widths of the slip lines were measured. The slip lines account for an over-all tensile deformation of 7.0 ± 0.7 pet, after allowing for the lengths of the un-slipped regions, which is in good agreement with the macroscopic strain. The distribution of slip-line widths was also measured and is shown in Fig. 3. Since Koppenaal could not resolve slip lines with height less than 540A (limit of resolution represented by dashed line), then it was deduced that he could have measured only about 50 pet of the deformation within the &apos;Liiders Band&apos;. It is concluded, contrary to the suggestion of Koppenaal,5 that virtually all the macroscopic strain is accommodated within the "Luders band" and that there is no need to invoke fine slip distributed uniformly over the gage length.

Jan 1, 1967

By B. B. Wood, M. J. Rzasa, E. W. Hough

An apparatus for the determination of fluid-fluid interfacial tension by the pendant drop method has been constructed. The apparatus is refined beyond those previously described in that the samples are introduced into an evacuated windowed cell without contacting air or mercury. Interfacial tension data are reported for the water-methane system between 74 and 280°F and 15 and 15,000 psi. The variation of wettability of the stainless-steel dropper tip with pressure and temperature was observed incidentally to the measurements. INTRODUCTION The most refined previous apparatus --for the determination of fluid-fluid interfacial tension at reservoir conditions was built by Hauser and Michaels.&apos; These authors used the pendant drop method, previously investigated by Andreas, Hauser, and Tucker.&apos; Recently, Fordham3 has made the pendant drop method an absolute one by numerical integration of the differential equation of drop shape. It is necessary to know the difference in density of the two fluids and the acceleration due to gravity in order to evaluate the interfacial tension from measurements of drop dimensions. Contact angle is not involved in the measurements by this method. Some precise tests of the method have been made at atmospheric pressure and 77°F by Douglas," who found agreement with established values to within about 0.1 per cent for water and air, cyclohexane and air, benzene and air, and benzene and water. No values of interfacial tension from the recent pendant drop apparatusJ have been published by Hauser and Michaels. However, values for the water-benzene and water-decane systems are given in Michaels&apos; thesis5 or Dressures from 15 .to 10,000 psi and temperatures from 73 to 268ºF. Some determinations on gas-oil and gas-water systems in the range of 15 to 4,000 psi and 78 to 178°F have been made by Hozott,&apos; by the drop-volume method. The capillary rise method has been used to investigate the interfacial tension in gas-oil systems at 88°F to several thousand psi by Swartz.7 Other determinations in gas-oil systems at pressures under 1,000 psia have been made by Jones: and Beecher and Parkhurst.9 The scarcity of data for pressures above 5.000 psi is apparent. APPARATUS An assembly drawing of the working section of the interfacial tenqion apparatus is given in Fig. 2. &apos;The endanant drop (A) is housed in a pressure chamber having glass windows (B). An agitator (6) is provided. The metal parts of the apparatus coming into contact with the sample are made of AISI: Type 316 steel. Drain grooves are provided around the whdows so that the sample in contact with the O-rings is not returned to the working section when the pressure is reduced. A schematic arrangement of the apparatus is given in Fig. 3. The working section containing the pendant drop (A) is filled by samples from bombs (B) with the aid of the vacuum system (C). The O-ring sealed pistons (D) used to separate the sample from the hydraulic fluid are shown together with the pressure production and measurement system (E). A front view of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. Most of the hydraulic system is at the top of the panel. The pump and displacement piston are at the lower right. The Variacs for the air bath heaters. the camera. and the vacuum gauge are a1so visible on the panel. The working section together with a window closure and a drop-forming tip closure are shown in Fig. 9. The carbon arc light source with filter is visible in the upper part of the picture. Two sides of the air bath with the impeller and a part of the convection shield can also be seen. The assembled air bath is shown in Fig. 10.

Jan 1, 1951

By E. W. Hough, B. B. Wood, M. J. Rzasa

An apparatus for the determination of fluid-fluid interfacial tension by the pendant drop method has been constructed. The apparatus is refined beyond those previously described in that the samples are introduced into an evacuated windowed cell without contacting air or mercury. Interfacial tension data are reported for the water-methane system between 74 and 280°F and 15 and 15,000 psi. The variation of wettability of the stainless-steel dropper tip with pressure and temperature was observed incidentally to the measurements. INTRODUCTION The most refined previous apparatus --for the determination of fluid-fluid interfacial tension at reservoir conditions was built by Hauser and Michaels.&apos; These authors used the pendant drop method, previously investigated by Andreas, Hauser, and Tucker.&apos; Recently, Fordham3 has made the pendant drop method an absolute one by numerical integration of the differential equation of drop shape. It is necessary to know the difference in density of the two fluids and the acceleration due to gravity in order to evaluate the interfacial tension from measurements of drop dimensions. Contact angle is not involved in the measurements by this method. Some precise tests of the method have been made at atmospheric pressure and 77°F by Douglas," who found agreement with established values to within about 0.1 per cent for water and air, cyclohexane and air, benzene and air, and benzene and water. No values of interfacial tension from the recent pendant drop apparatusJ have been published by Hauser and Michaels. However, values for the water-benzene and water-decane systems are given in Michaels&apos; thesis5 or Dressures from 15 .to 10,000 psi and temperatures from 73 to 268ºF. Some determinations on gas-oil and gas-water systems in the range of 15 to 4,000 psi and 78 to 178°F have been made by Hozott,&apos; by the drop-volume method. The capillary rise method has been used to investigate the interfacial tension in gas-oil systems at 88°F to several thousand psi by Swartz.7 Other determinations in gas-oil systems at pressures under 1,000 psia have been made by Jones: and Beecher and Parkhurst.9 The scarcity of data for pressures above 5.000 psi is apparent. APPARATUS An assembly drawing of the working section of the interfacial tenqion apparatus is given in Fig. 2. &apos;The endanant drop (A) is housed in a pressure chamber having glass windows (B). An agitator (6) is provided. The metal parts of the apparatus coming into contact with the sample are made of AISI: Type 316 steel. Drain grooves are provided around the whdows so that the sample in contact with the O-rings is not returned to the working section when the pressure is reduced. A schematic arrangement of the apparatus is given in Fig. 3. The working section containing the pendant drop (A) is filled by samples from bombs (B) with the aid of the vacuum system (C). The O-ring sealed pistons (D) used to separate the sample from the hydraulic fluid are shown together with the pressure production and measurement system (E). A front view of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. Most of the hydraulic system is at the top of the panel. The pump and displacement piston are at the lower right. The Variacs for the air bath heaters. the camera. and the vacuum gauge are a1so visible on the panel. The working section together with a window closure and a drop-forming tip closure are shown in Fig. 9. The carbon arc light source with filter is visible in the upper part of the picture. Two sides of the air bath with the impeller and a part of the convection shield can also be seen. The assembled air bath is shown in Fig. 10.

Jan 1, 1951

By Rossiter Raymond

JOHN BIRKINBINE was born Nov. 16, 1844, at Reading, Pa., the eldest son of H. P. M. Birkinbine, widely known as a hydraulic engineer. The family removed subsequently to Philadelphia, where, as a young man he established with his father the office now continued by his sons, after more than 60 years. His education was received at public schools, the Friends&apos; High School in Philadelphia, the Hill School at Pottstown, Pa., and the Polytechnic College of Pennsylvania, where his studies were interrupted in 1863-4 by service in the Union Army, which included participation in the battles at and around Gettysburg. Later, he devoted two years to work in a machine shop; and subsequently he became associated with the late P. L. Weimer, under the firm. name of Weimer & Birkinbine, operating the Weimer Machine Works at Lebanon, Pa. Much of his work was in mining, metallurgy, and blast-furnace construction. As manager for the South Mountain Mining & Iron Co. he carried on experiments with various fuels for iron-ore smelting while maintaining the furnace in constant operation. The carefully recorded results obtained were widely published, and are referred to in text-books by other metallurgists as most complete. From his Philadelphia office he was sent to nearly every State, and to Canada and Mexico, for examinations, reports, constructions or improvements in iron-ore mines, blast furnaces, iron works, water supplies, hydraulic development, irrigation projects, etc., and his engineering knowledge was requisitioned by several European corporations. A number of business trips were made to Mexico, beginning with a visit to the Cerro de Mercado at Durango, before railroads were established in that portion of Mexico, to make a critical examination and report on this "Iron Mountain." Later visits covered other localities and engineering problems, familiarizing him with the major part of the iron industry in Mexico. The late disturbed political conditions in that Republic have retarded the probable enlargement, modernization, and improvement of much of the iron and steel industry of Mexico, upon which he investigated and reported for various capitalists on both continents. One interesting subject included in these reports was a proposed electric furnace, to be operated by energy from water power.

Jan 7, 1915

Here are the details . . . . . of how a $2.5 million research gamble, now backed by five years of intensive development in cooperation with the Chemical Construction Corp. resulted in a hydrometollurgical process that yields pure metal powders from sulphide concentrate - a process that offers potential savings of $2.5 million a year.

Jan 6, 1953