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By Edward Gridley

Members of the Institute who were present at the Amenia, N. Y., meeting, in October, 1877, will remember their visit to the hematite mines, just west of the village of Amenia, and some of them may perhaps recall the deposit of carbonate ore south of the opening made for the hematite. The smelting of this carbonate during the last few months, has produced an iron that seems worthy of being brought to your notice. A little more than a year ago, at the Wassaie Furnace, Dutchess County, N. Y., we made a few hundred tons of iron from a mixture of two-thirds ram carbonate and one-third Chateaugay ore, hoping that it would be suitable for steel purposes, but as the iron showed phosphorus 0.189 per cent., it, was not offered. This iron looked well and seemed quite strong, and gave good results in malleable castings; but no special tests of strength were made. About February 1st, of this year, we began using two-thirds roasted carbonate, and one-third Chateaugay, and noticing that the iron mas stronger than usual, we had two samples tested, which showed tensile strength of 32,014 and 34,176 pounds per square inch. After our stock of Chateaugay ore was exhausted, me put on one-third ram carbonate with the two-thirds of roasted carbonate, and the first test made of the iron, showed 40,008 pounds per square inch. The three tests given above were made by Mr. A. J. Copp and Mr. E. B. Manning, of the Phoenix Furnace, Millerton, N. Y., on a machine of Riehle Bros., Philadelphia. Since these tests were made, they have broken samples made with all carbonate ore as follows: 39,669, 40,816, 41,882, 42,281, 39,902, and 40,130 pounds per square inch. A test taken from the same bed of iron as the last-mentioned (40,130), was broken by Mr. A. Blass, at Irondale Furnace, showing 40,151 pounds per square inch. A sample broken on the Riehle Bros. machine, at Stevens Institute, under direction of Professor R. H. Thurston, showed 40,000 pounds per square inch. Another sample was broken by Professor Thurston on his torsion machine, and gave torsion 7", and tensile strength of 44,500 pounds. And

Jan 1, 1884

Discussion of the paper of E. L. deGolyer, to be presented at the Colorado meeting, September, 1918, and printed in Bulletin No. 137, May, 1918, pp. 987 to1000. J. A. UDDEN,* Austin, Tex. (written discussiont).-I have read Mr. E. L. deGolyer's paper on The Theory of Volcanic Origin of Salt. Domes, with a great deal of interest. It seems to me a very able summary and discussion of the various theories set forth to account for the origin of our salt domes on the coast. It has always appeared to me that what we need is more observations on the facts involved and I regret very much that so far we have not been able to devote much time to the study of our salt-dome fields on the coast in this State. One feature that I do not find mentioned in Mr. deGolyer's paper is the so-called "cap. rock" overlying the salt. The nature of this rock seems to vary from a coarsely crystalline limestone to a fine-grained limestone containing sand and in which the limestone seems to be intersticially introduced material. We should be prepared to accept, if necessary, "more than one theory. To my mind, the igneous theory and the artesian theory, if I may so call it, may very well both be true. The "squeeze" theory and the artesian .theory may,, it seems tome also, jointly explain the phenomena. Neither the volcanic nor the salt "squeeze" theory explains the presence of the cap rock. The latter certainly does not explain the extensive sulphur deposits which occur in association with the cap rock. Whichever additional theory will be found best to explain the salt-dome structures, when we shall know them better, it seems to me that the theory first advanced by R. T. Hill and later elaborated by G. D. Harris, is not likely to be entirely replaced. Whatever cause has first set into action an upward circulation of gases and liquids in our salt domes, it seems to me that to a gentle circulation of the kind postulated by their theory is to be ascribed the uppermost and the later phenomena in our salt domes on the coast, with which we are most familiar; such as the cap rock, the sulphur, and the gypsum and anhydrite deposits.

Jan 7, 1918

MARCEL R. DALY (written discussion+).-I have read with great interest Mr. W . Van Der Gracht's discussion of my paper and I fail to see where his theory contradicts mine on any fundamental point. My contention is that petroliferous accumulations are generally coincident with diastrophic deformations, synchronous with them and essentially a result of them. This implies that the causes which have led to the distortion of the strata, whatever these causes may be (thrusts, torsion, etc.), have also led to the concentration and accumulation of the hydrocarbons existing in the strata at that time. It is in this respect that both set of phenomena may be said to be related in space and in time and that we may speak of an identity of causes. It is evident that no concentration of the hydrocarbons could take place where these hydrocarbons would not exist. But whenever they do so exist, deformation will tend to concentrate them; and whenever they are found to be concentrated (or accumulated) the cause of their accumulation will have to be traced directly to distortion. I have tried to show, in some previous papers,' the probable sequence of such a mechanical process in the simple case of a series of parallel, superposed, horizontal and homogeneous layers, individually uniform in thickness, but variable in composition and resistance; and I have pointed out that the general results so obtained would harmonize with some striking features recognized in the field. But I have also stated that conditions being much more complicated in nature than in the theoretical instance considered above, a complex superposition of effects would. have to be expected as a general rule, though the leading principle would remain the same. Mr. Van der Gracht admits that the motion of the primary oil, when it has been formed, and its accumulation in adequately porous containers, if any, that would be mostly found on the front edge of the original geosynclines, would be due to the action of the mountain-building forces. Our agreement on this point seems to be complete. But Mr. Van der Gracht wants also the formation of the bituminous matter in its primary form to be coincident only with the earliest phase of the uplift, viz., after the slow geanticlinal upheaval has been completed, and the accumulation

Jan 3, 1918

By J. Jones-Parra

In previous Technical Notes, W. R. Rose' and W. Purcell have discussed the capillary pressure data presented by Welge.' Welge obtained capillary pressure curves of the imbibition type in which it was necessary to apply to the apparent wetting phase a greater pressure than that of the non-wetting phase to complete the cycle and reduce the non-wetting phase saturation to low values. Rose suggests in his Note that conditions of equilibrium could not have prevailed, since the. non-wetting phase pressure must always be the greater. Pur-cell in his Note, proceeds to postulate a pore system consisting. of a series of "holes in a doughnut," in which he contends that under equilibrium conditions it is necessary to resort to negative capillary pressures before significant wetting phase displacement can take place. There is a remarkable similarity between the shape of the capillary pressure curve calculated by Purcell and those measured by Welge. It is the purpose of this Note to show that, because Purcell neglected to account for the behavior of the residual wetting phase saturation, his system was not in equilibrium during imbibition; and, furthermore, that if his system had been in equilibrium, negative capillary pressures would not have been possible. In Purcell's pore system, the residual wetting phase will form pendular rings at the interstitial spaces existing somewhere within the system, for example, such as those spaces between "doughnuts" as shown in Fig. 1. The true capillary pressure is that across the pendular ring interface, and for the system to be in equilibrium the pressure drop across all interfaces must be the same, including that across the interface in the tight pores A of diaphragm B (Fig. 1). As the pressure across the cell is reduced, the advancing interface will move into the pore from the diaphragm, but at each pressure, the curvature of the pendular rings must be the same as that of the advancing interface if equilibrium is to prevail. Since equilibrium conditions are the basis for the entire argument, it follows that pendular rings must grow as wetting phase enters the pore, that is, as the pressure across the cell is lowered. In Purcell's calculated curve, the residual wetting phase saturation remains constant as the capillary pressure decreases. Thus, his curve does not represent an equilibrium process.

Jan 1, 1953

By William P. Mason

FoR reasons unnecessary to enter into here, I was called upon to contradict the statement that " closed metallic vessels, partly filled with water and heated, do not become shattered by violent explosion, but simply rupture by over-pressure;" and the following experimental results were obtained in support of my position : A piece of drawn brass tubing (telescope-tubing) 1 1/2 inches in diameter and 15 inches long was closed at both ends by screwing on heavy caps of bronze. Before closing the second end the vessel was half filled with river water, the cap was then screwed on, and the closed vessel was supported upon two iron anvils, and heated in the interval between the supports by a large Bunsen lamp. The resulting explosion (which was doe to over-pressure only and not to any more occult cause) was exceedingly violent. No small damage was done to the room in which the experiment was undertaken; and the noise was like that of a cannon. Those of the pieces which could be recovered are shown in Fig. 1. Upon examining the wreck, it was noticed that one of the heavy bronze end-caps had preserved its circular section and still contained that portion of the barrel of the tube which had been screwed into it, while the other end-cap contained no portion of the tube, and was moreover sprung into a shape more or less elliptical, as if from excessive lateral strain. It was also observed that the large pieces of the shattered boiler predominated towards the end which had been closed by the un-sprung end-cap. The reasonable explanation, in view of the facts, was, that over-pressure had caused the boiler to yield through the screw-threads at A B, Fig. 2, and the righthand end-cap had blown off, thus leaving the boiler half filled with water, greatly super-heated for the new (atmospheric) pressure to which it was suddenly reduced; that this water had consequently sprung instantly into steam with dynamite effect, shattering the tube and springing the remaining end-cap. The large pieces would be expected at the open end of the boiler, as at that point the "tamping "would have been that of the atmosphere only. This explanation assumes a rupture to have been caused by gradually increased pres-

Jan 1, 1893

By T. Prof. Ph. D. Egleston

THE importance of having perfectly pure metals has led me to present to the Institute a record of some of the trials that have been made to obtain these metals, and also to show one of the largest specimens of extremely thin metal plate which has ever been made. The malleability of metals varies generally directly with their purity, and hence it is only with very pure metals that thin sheets can be obtained. The competition among different manufacturers has been so great at times as to lead to expensive and apparently useless experiments in obtaining in the first instance very thin sheets, and afterwards very large and thin sheets of metal, apparently with no other purpose than that of being able to say that they had produced the thinnest or the largest thin sheet that had ever been made. These experiments were at first confined exclusively to iron, their object being to show the great dexterity of manipulation, as well as the purity of the metal manufactured. They have since been extended to almost all metals by electrical action, and have gone far beyond the limits of what was possible with purely mechanical means. The processes which have been used are rolling or hammering, electrical deposition in a vacuum, and lastly, electrical deposition on plates, easily soluble in acids. The first and last of these methods have been known and practiced for a very long time, having been used to make thin sheets of almost all the metals. The other is of quite recent application. In the iron manufacture, the strife to produce these thin sheets was commenced in the year 1865, by the Sligo Iron Works writing to a firm in Birmingham, England, on a sheet of iron containing 270 square centimeters, and weighing only 4.469 grams. For some time this was considered to be the thinnest sheet iron that could be made. T. W. Booker & Co., of Cardiff, England, however, produced a few months afterward, a sheet of the same size, weighing only 4.015 grams. This was succeeded by one rolled by Neville and Everitt, of Llannelly, weighing only 3.174 grams. This was followed by one from Hallam, of Swansea, which was 283 square centimeters in size, and weighed but 2.979 grams; and this by one rolled by R. Wil-

Jan 1, 1879

By T. Egleston

The importance of having perfectly pure metals has led me to present to the lnstitute a record of some of the trials that have been made to obtain these metals, and also to show one of the largest specimens of extremely thin metal plate which has ever been made. The malleability of metals varies generally directly with their purity, and hence it is only with very pure metals that thin sheets can be obtained. The competition among different manufacturers has been so great at times as to lead to expensive and apparently useless experiments in obtaining in the first instance very thin sheets, and afterwards very large and thin sheets of metal, apparently with no other purpose than that of being able to say that they had produced the thinnest or the largest thin sheet that had ever been made. These experiments were at first confined exclusively to iron, their object being to show the great dexterity of manipulation, as well as the purity of the metal manufactured. They have since been extended to almost all metals by electrical action, and have gone far beyond the limits of what was possible with purely mechanical means. The processes which have been used are rolling or hammering, electrical deposition in a vacuum, and lastly, electrical deposition on plates, easily soluble in acids. The first and last of these methods have been known and practiced for a very long time, having been used to make thin sheets of almost all the metals. The other is of quite recent application. In the iron manufacture, the strife to produce these thin sheets was commenced in the year 1865, by the Sligo Iron Works writing to a firm in Birmingham, England, on a sheet of iron containing 270 square centimeters, and weighing only 4.469 grams. For some time this was considered to be the thinnest sheet iron that could be made. T. W. Booker & Co., of Cardiff, England, however, produced a few months afterward, a sheet of the same size, weighing only 4.015 grams. This was succeeded by one rolled by Neville and Everitt, of Llannelly, weighing only 3.174 grams. This was followed by one from Hallam, of Swansea, which was 283 square centimeters in size, and weighed but 2.979 grams; and this by one rolled by R. Wil

Jan 1, 1879

R. B. BrinSmade, Ixmiquilpan, Hgo., Mexico (written discussion*).—While agreeing with Mr. Gibson that his net-profit tax is the fairest and best for mines, I believe that the tax he describes can be more accurately defined by another name. In accounting, net profits are usually considered to be the residual of the gross income after operating expenses and the annual charge for upkeep of plant have been deducted. Even the necessary interest on bonds or mortgages should not be subtracted in this calculation, for this interest represents merely that fixed portion of the net profits going as a return to that fraction of the total property value owned by the bondholders. Applying this method of calculation to the gross income of a mining property, we should onIy deduct operation expenses and upkeep of plant to get the net profits on its whole property value. So Mr. Gibson in deducting a further sum, to cover the interest and amortization of the capital expended in mine development and equipment, really arrives at something quite differen't from net profits; which can properly only be defined as the annual value of the mineral in the ground, or the royalty value in miners' parlance. From one viewpoint, Mr. Gibson's first principle, which assesses taxes, "proportionate to the benefits received by the person or property taxed," is identical with his third principle wbich assesses "with reference to the extent and value of the natural resources enjoyed." With one exception, everything of use around a mine represents a cash expenditure, or its equivalent in human labor, and state action has not added an iota to its value. The one exception is what makes the enterprise possible and it includes the mineral deposits and their associated surface; water and other landed rights. These natural resources are origin2!1y the gift of tile people acting through their agent, the state, and it is evident that a tax laid on whatever profits may arise from their enjoyment will be exactly "proportionate to the benefits received by the person or property taxed." Mr. Gibson is mistaken in his belief that the general property tax of the United States has the same incidence as his system of taxing profits, because the general property tax falls not only on land1 value—as does

Jan 1, 1920

By John Mathews

DURING the prosecution of the aircraft-production program in 1917 and 1918, the writer visited many plants engaged in the manufacture of motors, planes and parts, in carrying out his duties as chairman of the Committee on Aircraft-engine Forgings. On several occasions, when the question of expansion was discussed, it was noted that there was confusion in the use of the terms: the true coefficient of expansion, a physical constant, and distortion in hardening. One engineer, referring to a steel shown in the accompanying table; stated that he could not consider it for crankshafts because of its excessive coefficient of expansion, while another steel, also listed in the table, as said to be especially good because it had no coefficient of expansion, since it came out of the oil bath perfectly straight. Many years ago one of our employees designed anew oil furnace; when asked what became of the products of combustion, he replied: "There ain't any, we burn them all up." While the coefficient of expansion is not without its effect in volume changes in hardened steel, it is not a determining factor in the matter of distortion and going out of shape. Irregular heating, uneven furnace bottoms, and carelessness in withdrawing the part from the furnace, as well as the manner in which the part enters the quenching bath are of greater moment. Generally speaking, also, steels of relatively low hardening temperature will distort less than those requiring higher hardening heats. The coefficient of expansion must be considered in engineering design most frequently when different metals or alloys are used in the same construction. For example, the difference of expansion between a steel crankshaft and an aluminum crank-case might be of real importance and a steel with no coefficient of expansion would be much less desirable than one with the normal coefficient. About 15 years ago, the writer made many determinations of the coefficient of expansion at low temperature ranges, usually between 20° and 100° C. Among the materials tested were: Pure forged electrolytic iron, 11.73 parts per million for 1° C.; cast aluminum (99.93 per cent. Al.),

Jan 2, 1920

By Earnest R. Woakes

Those engaged in pumping from shafts, or other mining works, may be intereited in the following suggestion of what is believed to be a novel method of raising moderate quantities of water against a considerable head. It is admitted that the ordinary Cornish pump, as generally used in mines, is hard to beat, on account of both its extreme simplicity and its easy adaptation to the requirements of mining; its great drawback, however, being the enormous weight of heavy rods and successive plungers that have to be kept in motion, not to mention the necessary " balance-" and " angle-bobs," with all their accompanying friction and wear and tear. It is contended that the following method would, to a great extent, overcome these drawbacks ; though, no doubt, many old miners may say it would also introduce new ones. Possibly, this may be the case. It is only desired that this pump may be judged upon its merits. The chief novelty of the method consists in employing the almost unlimited pressure obtainable from a high column of water, augmented, if necessary, by a hydraulic ram or press at the top, to work a small-diameter piston or plunger at the bottom of a shaft or well. This high-pressure plunger, indicated at E, in Fig. 1, transmits power direct to a larger-diameter plunger, F, constituting, together with the ordinary H-piece, valves, and wind-bore, the actual pump, which raises the water, by column C, to the adit-level or other discharge, placed as far as possible below the head of the high-pressure column A and ram W. It will thus be seen, that it is only necessary to maintain a prmsnre on the small piston, E, equal to that on the larger one, F, by means of the small but high column of water, A, in order to cause F to descend, and thus force the water up through C. The up-stroke is accomplished by a small water-wheel, or other engine, connected to the light rod or wire rope B, this having only to raise the weight of the actual plungers and fill the H-piece with water from the tank or

Jan 1, 1892

By Richard Divine

IN the Parkes process of extracting precious metals from lead, zinc is added to the molten lead containing gold, silver, copper, and, some antimony. These metals, with the exception of antimony, form an alloy with the zinc by reason of their greater affinity for it than for the lead, and this alloy, being lighter than lead, rises to the top, carrying the precious metals with it, whence it can be removed by skimming. These skimmings are further treated for the separation of the zinc therefrom, and the recovery of the precious metals, the zinc being driven off by heat and again used for another operation. In addition to the zinc that combines with the silver, etc., a certain amount is necessary to saturate the lead, and it is therefore necessary to treat the desilverized lead to free it from this residual zinc. To do this it is heated again in a reverberatory furnace and air or steam is blown through it. This oxidizes the zinc together with a small amount of lead and antimony, leaving the lead free from zinc and antimony, and forming oxides of these metals, which rise to the. top and are skimmed off. This process relates to the separation of the metals in these oxides or skimmings. The skimmings are cooled, crushed, and mixed with carbonate of soda and pulverized oil coke. The mixture is heated in a reverberatory furnace on a bath of lead, to about 1,000°C. The metals are reduced by the coke, the lead and antimony go into the lead bath, while the zinc is volatilized and burned to oxide. This impure oxide is at the present time treated at Omaha by the Hall process of electrical precipitation, making a very pure metallic zinc. It can also be very easily refined by the old Schnabel process of using ammonia and carbon dioxide as a solvent. It seen-is to be in an ideal form for this purpose, and very few changes from the original method are required to obtain the zinc oxide practically C. P., leaving the lead and antimony as residues.

Jan 8, 1914

By C. R. Boyd

The sulphuretted ores of Carroll and Grayson Counties, Va., Ore Knob, Ashe County, N. C., and Ducktown, Tenn., in their general position, are in the prolongation of the same massive deposits. The existence of the extensive ore-bodies has been well-established, not only in a practical way, but by the careful research of a number of men of science, including Dr. T. S. Hunt, Professor Kerr, Dr. Genth, Rogers, Safford, Professor Egleston, Dr. H. E. Colton, the writer, and others, and described in one or more of the volumes of our Transactions, as well as in other publications. The greater quantity of' these ores being pyrrhotite, although much of them carry nonmagnetic disulphide, their reduction on the gronnd will probably lead to better results than an attempt to mine and ship them to distant places; and their use as sulphuric acid producers, to be employed in the cheap manufacture of valuable fertilizers, will be chiefly the subject of this paper. The great deposits of Carroll County, Va., are now nearer to railway transportation than any of the others, being six to eight miles from the Cripple Creek extension of the Norfolk and Western Railway, now being constructed, the grading of which is in an advanced state of completion. I am not able to state what are the present prospects of an early completion of the contemplated line of railway to Ducktown. For a long while, during the time those deposits were mined and reduced for their copper, the works were forty miles from any railway ; and the same may be said of Ore Knob, N. C. The deposits in Carroll and Grayson Counties, Va., being now the most accessible to cheap transportation, will naturally claim the greater part of our attention ; though it may be pertinent to remark, just here, that the ores of Ducktown, like those of Carroll and Grayson, Va., exist in the undecomposed levels as iron and copper sulphurets, much of which is a non-magnetic disulphide, as stated, with occasional exhibits of sulphides, such as covellite, erubescite, etc. There are, now and then, small quantities of silver, lead, and zinc,

Jan 1, 1886

By Samuel Wyer

F. G. CLAPP, New York, N. Y. (communication to the Secretary*).¬I assume that where this valuable paper states, near its end, that "it is not possible to establish a market price, " the author means that no particular price which will fit all conditions and fields can be given. I am not in agreement with Mr. Wyer, however, that the actual value of natural gas leaseholds is "largely a matter of opinion." I would even be willing to express myself very strongly as believing that if we, as experts, cannot give anything closer than a mere opinion, our testimony or reports are not of great value to our clients. I believe, moreover, that by detailed geological examinations and with our latest knowledge of geological structure, principles of natural gas occurrence, etc., we can approach just as near a certainty in natural gas valuations as we can in oil valuations, and much more so than in the valuation of many metal prospects, in which only the upper few feet of the vein has been opened. In other words, we are getting nearer and nearer every year to bringing geology as applied to oil and gas development into the class of an exact science. Mr. Wyer's paper gives an excellent outline for methods of leasehold valuation. Being presumably intended as an outline only, it can be expanded indefinitely by a detailed discussion of the methods of valuation for the four different classes of leaseholds which he mentions: (A) "Producing;" (B) "Protective;" (C) "Reserve;" and (D) "Prospective." This classification is probably as good as can be made in practice. In the producing leaseholds in particular it is easy to establish a market price at which these leaseholds should be bought or sold. The question would arise in any case whether or not the leases are connected with a pipe line or the distance from the pipe line. Assuming that a pipe line already taps the property and that gas is already being sold for a certain figure, this price must be multiplied by the number of thousand cubic feet still "in sight" in the ground, from which is to be deducted (a) bonuses, (b) rentals, (c) royalties, (d) cost of drilling, (e) taxes and

Jan 12, 1916

R. B. BRinsmade, Ixmiquilpan, Hgo., Mexico (written discussion").—how far ahead of the United States are the self-governing British colonies in their application of economic democracy is well illustrated by Mr. Godson's paper. To prove this, I need quote only two of his assertions, the italics being mine: "lt is a stern fundamental principle that a11 natural resources are the inalienable property of the crown.'' "The right to a claim should only exist as long as it is worked or taxed to insure work. Once depart from that sound maxim, there results improper control of the natural resources of the country, which primarily belong to the people." These assertions formed the basis of my criticism1 of Dr. Raymond's paper in 1913, and they should be inscribed in letters of gold above the entrance to the office of every county recorder in the United States. I venture to assert that the existing United States mineral land laws are essentially unfair to the nation and a hindrance to the legitimate miner, because they fail to embody the above quoted principlca; and this applies both to state laws east of the Mississippi and to federal laws in the West. That these laws favor the forestaller and the monopolist, defraud the government of its fair share of the profits of mineral production, and tend to industrial feudalism must be evident to any competent unbiassed observer. The fact that no serious political movement arose to change them, until the conservation agitation of the last decade, may be largely explained by two salient conditions. First, as stated by President Winchell, "for a long time there was such a vast surplus, or excessive amount of unwanted, undesirable land in the West that the land offices did not scrutinize the claim sought to be located;" second, that the millions of individual farm owners throughout the country could easily be aroused, by the special pleaders hired by the great land speculators and monopolists, to use their vast political power for the suppression of any statesmen striving to incorporate in our semi-feudal land laws any such principles as those quoted from Mr. Godson. While agreeing with Mr. Godson that a freehold or fee-simple title, if coupled with obligatory continuous work, may have the same practical effect as a lease, it seems to be the experience of the most active and

Jan 1, 1920

By Roscoe C. Clark

In October 1945. R. F. Farris. in an AIME paper entitled Method For Drtermining Minimum Waiting OIL Cenzent Time, presented a method for caiculating the minimum WOC* time required in oil well cementing operations. Briefly. this method consisted of shutting in a well. after the cement had been placed and noting the time required fur the wellhead pressure to reach a. maximum. This time was then multiplied by a factor of 1.5 to determine when the cement had reached sufficient strength to support the weight of the casing. As a result of this work, a number of areas have reduced their WOC time ~Wuirements with the subsequent saving of considerable rig time. The tests conducted by Farris were, for the most part, conducted under cementing temperatures in excess of 70°F. This was done because in the overwhelming majority of cases. cementing temperatures are in excess of 70°F (only in tile northern part of the country. primarily in the Rocky Mountain ares. in cementing surface casing are temperatures below 70° F. encountered, and such temperatures occur only during the winter months). The Stano-lind Research Laboratory since that time has performed a number of tests both in the laboratory and in the field to evaluate this WOC factor when cemeriting temperatures are lower than 70°F. The results of these tests indicated the need for greater WOC time in areas affeaed by abnormally low cementing temperatures. These tests indi.cated that a woc factor of 2 (Time from start to mix cement to maximum wellhead pressure x 2 = Time to drill plug) will allow sufficient time for the cement to develop adequate strength. A field test under abnormally low cementing temperatures (surface temyerature 35°F., mud discharge temperature <70°F. and cementing depth 500 ft.) in the Rangely Field, "* using the WOC factor of 2, indicated the time to drill the plug as 45 hours. Well conditions preventing getting back into the well until a 48-hour WOC time had elapsed. At this time, the plug drilled firm to hard indicating that the cement had reached its final set. It is contemplated that during next winter additional field tests will be performed to further check the results of the laboratory and field tests conducted to date,

Jan 1, 1949

By Roscoe C. Clark

In October 1945. R. F. Farris. in an AIME paper entitled Method For Drtermining Minimum Waiting OIL Cenzent Time, presented a method for caiculating the minimum WOC* time required in oil well cementing operations. Briefly. this method consisted of shutting in a well. after the cement had been placed and noting the time required fur the wellhead pressure to reach a. maximum. This time was then multiplied by a factor of 1.5 to determine when the cement had reached sufficient strength to support the weight of the casing. As a result of this work, a number of areas have reduced their WOC time ~Wuirements with the subsequent saving of considerable rig time. The tests conducted by Farris were, for the most part, conducted under cementing temperatures in excess of 70°F. This was done because in the overwhelming majority of cases. cementing temperatures are in excess of 70°F (only in tile northern part of the country. primarily in the Rocky Mountain ares. in cementing surface casing are temperatures below 70° F. encountered, and such temperatures occur only during the winter months). The Stano-lind Research Laboratory since that time has performed a number of tests both in the laboratory and in the field to evaluate this WOC factor when cemeriting temperatures are lower than 70°F. The results of these tests indicated the need for greater WOC time in areas affeaed by abnormally low cementing temperatures. These tests indi.cated that a woc factor of 2 (Time from start to mix cement to maximum wellhead pressure x 2 = Time to drill plug) will allow sufficient time for the cement to develop adequate strength. A field test under abnormally low cementing temperatures (surface temyerature 35°F., mud discharge temperature <70°F. and cementing depth 500 ft.) in the Rangely Field, "* using the WOC factor of 2, indicated the time to drill the plug as 45 hours. Well conditions preventing getting back into the well until a 48-hour WOC time had elapsed. At this time, the plug drilled firm to hard indicating that the cement had reached its final set. It is contemplated that during next winter additional field tests will be performed to further check the results of the laboratory and field tests conducted to date,

Jan 1, 1949

A national budget system, which engineers have long regarded as essential to the proper conduct of our fiscal affairs is at last being seriously considered by. Congress and seems likely to be adopted in some form. Several, bills and joint resolutions have already- been introduced but the measure that seems how to attract the &apos;most attention is H. R. 1201 introduced by. Representative Good, Chairman of the House Committee on Appropriations. This ,bill provides for the creation of a Bureau of the Budget in the office of the President, to which full information shall be furnished by all Departments and other Governmental agencies concerning powers, duties, financial transactions, business method&apos;s, etc. A change, is made in the fiscal regulations in that the Departments shall hereafter submit their fiscal estimates to the President instead of to the Secretary of the Treasury, while the latter official shall submit estimates of the public revenues and the condition of the Treasury. Two budgets are, provided for:, The first, or regular, budget shall contain a balanced statement of the resources and liabilities of the Government and the revenues and expenditures, actual or estimated as the case may be, for the preceding, current, and ensuing fiscal years. The President is further, authorized to submit his recommendations as&apos; to how the heeds of the Government should be met, and such further data regarding the financial affairs of the, Government as he deems proper. The second or alternative budget shall make known the essential facts regarding the condition of the Treasury and what, in the opinion of the President. are the revenue, and expenditure needs for the ensuing fiscal year, to be prepared in such form as the President shall deem most appropriate. The bill&apos; abolishes-the offices. of Comptroller of the Treasury and all -the Auditors for the several Departments, and substitutes therefore an Accounting Department, an establishment independent of the Executive Departments, under the direction of newly created officer to be known as the "Comptroller General of the United States" whose powers shall comprise all those now conferred on the Comptroller of the Treasury and the several Auditors and, in addition thereto, the investigation at the seat of Government or elsewhere of all matters relating to the receipt or disbursement of public funds, concerning which report shall be made to Congress at the beginning of each regular session, containing recommendations concerning the legislation deemed necessary to the accurate rendition and settlement of accounts.

Jan 8, 1919

By Richard D. Divine

In the Parkes process of extracting precious metals from lead, zinc is added to the molten lead containing gold, silver, copper, and some antimony. These metals, with the exception of antimony, form an alloy with the zinc by reason of their greater affinity for it than for the lead, and this alloy, being lighter than lead, rises to the top, carrying the precious metals with it, whence it can be removed by skimming. These skimmings are further treated for the separation of the zinc therefrom, and the recovery of the precious metals, the zinc being driven off by heat and again used for another operation. In addition to the zinc that combines with the silver, etc., a certain amount is necessary to saturate the lead, and it is therefore necessary to treat the desilverized lead to free it from this residual zinc. TO do this it is heated again in a reverberatory furnace and air or steam is blown through it. This oxidizes the zinc together with a small amount of lead and antimony, leaving the lead free from zinc and antimony, and forming oxides of these metals, which rise to the top and are skimmed off. This process relates to the separation of the metals in these oxides or skimmings. The skimmings are cooled, crushed, and mixed with carbonate of soda and pulverized oil coke. The mixture is heated in a reverberatory furnace on a bath of lead, to about 1,000" C. The metals are reduced by the coke, the lead and antimony go into the lead bath, while the zinc is volatilized and burned to oxide. This impure oxide is at the present time treated at Omaha by the Hall process of electrical precipitation, making a very pure metallic zinc. It can also be very easily refined by the old Schnabel process of using ammonia and carbon dioxide as a solvent. It seems to be in an ideal form for this purpose, and very few changes from the original method are required to obtain the zinc oxide practically C. P., leaving the lead and antimony as residues. There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the effect

Jan 1, 1915

By Charles S. Barrett, Robert F. Mehl

It is generally understood by workers in the field of the crystal structure of metallic alloys that terminal solid solutions are of two types, the substitutional and the interstitial. In reviewing the literature, the work of Weissl on the crystal structure of the alpha copper-tin alloys was encountered, in which a new type of terminal solid solution was proposed. In brief, Weiss&apos; findings showed that the density of the alloys calculated from the side of the unit face-centered cube on the assumption of simple substitution—that is, with four atoms to the unit face-centered cell—was much higher than the density measured directly. It was suggested that the assumption of four atoms to the unit cube is not valid for these alloys, and that each unit cube contained less than four atoms; in other words, that one tin atom replaces more than one copper atom, leaving some atomic positions unoccupied. Such a structure, if verified, would have far-reaching significance in the study of the crystal structure of metallic alloys. It would indicate a complexity in terminal solid solutions not hitherto suspected and might encourage work leading to the discovery of other alloys of the same type, and perhaps to types intermediate between it and the two recognized types. It is of importance, therefore, to reinvestigate these alloys with respect to the type of solid-solution structure obtaining therein. Materials and Experimental Method The alloys were prepared from electrolytic copper cut directly from the cathode and the high-purity tin furnished by the U. S. Bureau of Standards for the calibration of thermocouples. No analyses for impurities of these materials or of the finished alloys were made, since such impurities as might be present could have only a wholly inappreciable effect upon the data obtained and the conclusions drawn. The alloys were made by melting the weighed copper charge in a graphite crucible under a KCl-LiC1 flux with later additions of NaC1, using induction heating. When the copper was melted the weighed portions of tin were

Jan 1, 1930

By D. A. Dahlstrom

Although the liquid-solid cyclone is a relatively recent innovation in the field of coal preparation, various authors have already indicated three distinct applications to operations encountered in the modern tipple. Driessen&apos;s articles and work at the Dutch State Mines exhibited its possibilities in the bene-ficiation of fine coal with apparently high efficiencies down to the 200-mesh fraction. l,2,3,4 Other publications point out its use as a recoverer, thickener, and preliminary dewatering agent of fine coal which in too many cases is being wasted due largely to former high operating cost limitations.M Finally, certain authors have emphasized the practicability of applying the cyclone to the elimination of coarse and fine solids from water slurries in the tipple in order to produce a water suitable for recycle purposes containing only minute particles far below the 200-mesh size.6 This would result in a closed water system for many cases, with its accompanying economic and operating advantages to locations where water quantity and quality problems are severe; better operation of washing equipment using a consistent water devoid of injurious fine particles; lowered maintenance costs due to the lesser abrasion resulting when the fine abraiding particles are removed; and the greater ease of disposing of refuse streams of reduced volume containing greater percentages of solids. While the three applications have been indicated to be feasible, only a meager amount of data is available on capacities and solid elimination eficiency as a function of design variables and cyclone friction loss. This information is essential for the optimum use and construction of the solid-liquid cyclone, and accordingly, work on the problem was initiated at Northwestern University. For the unfamiliar reader, briefly the cyclone consists of a cylindrical section mounted above a truncated cone. The feed nozzle enters the cylindrical ring tangentially with the underflow nozzle permitting discharge of the concentrated solids located at the apex of the cone. The overflow nozzle through which the clarified water exits is centered in the cylindrical section at the top of the cyclone. Half sections of experimental cyclones will be found in Fig la and 6. The feed slurry enters with a tangential velocity, thus creating a spiral pattern of high centrifugal force. The solid particles of sufficient size and gravity are ejected outward to the walls and spirally discharge to the underflow. Most of the water with uneliminated fine solids moves radially inward along the path of the outer

Jan 1, 1950