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By Alan G. MacKinnon

Loads and stresses from pile driving are increasing from heavier piles and more powerful hammers. Stresses can be dangerous to equipment stability. Equipment developer MacKinnon tells how to compute stresses for all positions of the crane boom and angles of pile batter. From a paper presented at the DFI-University of Hawaii Seminar, April 1985.

Jan 1, 1986

By Claudio Olalla

This paper relates to the foundation of a steel structure located at the San Martin de la Vega (Madrid) amusement park. The structure has more than 100 supports with various loading conditions, including important horizontal and uplift forces. Additionally, the settlement tolerances are very strict. A massive gypsum formation with interbedded clay layers and random solution great voids at various levels constitute the soil. The foundation design has been conditioned large enough these difficulties (load conditions and soil problems). The piling machine used was powerful to drill through the soft rock (UCS up to 11Mpa). The integrity of each pile had to be guaranteed by continuous recording of drilling and concrete pouring parameters. In order to fulfil all those conditions, a STARSOL type-piling rig was used. More than 4500 meters of piles were performed. The diameters of the piles were 450 and 550-mm and their depths varies from 6 to 23 meters. All piles were reinforced over their full length.

Jan 1, 2002

By C. T. Christensen

The paper gives an outline of the design, installation and performance of a series of mooring and berthing dolphins for a major ferry berth outside the port of Elsinore, Denmark. The Dolphins are large cylindrical bottle shaped and open ended steel piles vibrated into the sandy seabed. They are subsequently equipped with prefabricated fender units. Vehicle access to the ferry is via a fixed ramp and a semi-submerged linkspan. Supplementary passenger access is via a covered gangway steel bridge from an existing gangway facility to a midship door in the ferry«

Jan 1, 1989

By Timothy J. Myers

Expansion and the economic growth in the southwestern region of Missouri necessitated the expansion of State Route 249 and the construction of a new interchange to provide service to the Joplin, Missouri area. The project is located above a former lead and zinc mine in Jasper County, Missouri and includes a five bridge interchange connecting State Route 249 and US Route 171. The variable subsurface conditions, both natural and manmade, prompted the design team to use ground improvement via grouting and small diameter micropiles to provide support for several of the bridge foundations on the project. The scope of work included mine shaft closures, 56,000 ft of overburden and rock drilling, 11,139 ft of micropiles, 524 cy of balanced/stabilized high mobility grouts, and over 8,700 cy of low mobility grout. The selection of the grout used was based on the actual subsurface conditions. Low mobility grout (LMG) was used in voided conditions and for closure of the mine shafts encountered during the excavation. High mobility grout (HMG) was used in fractured rock with the goal of improving the mechanical properties of the rock underneath the future bridge footings and controlling grout volumes during micropile installation. The split spacing method was utilized for both LMG and HMG holes. Geology of the project site subsurface consisted of extremely variable bedrock with strong to very strong limestone, chert, breccia, extremely weak shale, and weak to strong sandstone. Previous activities associated with the mining disturbance (such as partial filled vertical mine shafts, shallow and deep mine horizons, modified hydrology including artesian conditions) further complicates the site subsurface conditions. Real time monitoring and recording of all drilling and grouting parameters was conducted to assist in the evaluation of in-situ geological properties of the site in order to modify the ground improvement and micropile program as necessary. This paper will discuss the design and execution of the ground improvement and micropile program. The project is an excellent example of the use of multiple ground improvement and foundation support techniques combined with real time data analysis to provide a foundation support solution for a complex geological environment.

Jan 1, 2009

By Richard J. Hartman

Current design practice is to select steel sheet piling sections using sufficient section modulus and yield strength to resist the calculated bending moment. Thus, section modulus is the only property of the sheet pile cross section used in the selection process. Full scale laboratory testing documented that section modulus alone is insufficient to predict the strength of sheet piling. During testing, sheet pile sections with equivalent section modulus exhibited as much as 75 percent difference in load resisting capacity. Analytical study following the testing established that, in addition to the traditional longitudinal (vertical) stress in sheet piling, transverse (horizontal) stresses are also present. Transverse stresses reduce the ability of the sheet piling to function in the intended manner. It was found that transverse stresses result from the pressure applied by soil and water and that the capacity of the sheet piling diminishes with increased pressure. All sheet piling is subject to this behavior. This paper describes the testing and the results and establishes that a problem exists. A two dimensional procedure is described that assists in evaluating transverse stresses and their effect on sheet pile capacity. A method of creating design aids for use by engineers is illustrated.

Jan 1, 2006

By A. F. van Weele

In general cast-in place piles will have an irregular pile shape. However, it is possible that these irregularities are so large that they may lead to pile deficiencies. It is very rarely possible to examine the pile foundations visually. Also the performance of a static or dynamic load test on each individual pile is not practical and much too expensive. This is the reason why pile integrity tests have been developed: to reduce the risk of inadequate pile foundations by performing a simple test. Pile integrity tests are non destructive tests which are carried out after a pile has been installed. Over the years a number of techniques have been developed of which the most important techniques are briefly described in this paper. Of all pile integrity testing methods, Sonic Integrity Testing is the most widely used method in western Europe. This method has been developed by TNO some 15 years ago. Since then the method has been improved, largely due to advances in micro-processing. A major improvement was made by the introduction of digital signal processing techniques. This made the Sonic Integrity Testing method more accurate (smaller defects can be detected), faster (more than 200 piles can be tested on a single working-day) and more reliable (the results are easier to interprete). A few cases will be presented which will show the usefulness of the Sonic Integrity Testing method. In one of these cases, a helpful tool for interpretation of the results is explained: the Sonic Integrity Testing Simulation program TNOWAVE. Notwithstanding the fact that Sonic Integrity Testing is a powerful method, it has also some strict limitations. These will be discussed at the end of the paper.

Jan 1, 1987

By Michael A. Knott

Large lateral forces on bridge foundations due to extreme events such as vessel collisions, earthquakes, and wave forces on storm surges during hurricane events are often the controlling design condition for bridge foundations. A review of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) vessel collision analysis and design codes used in the United States for highway bridges will be presented. The paper includes the background and development of the AASHTO Guide Specification and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges (1991) and vessel collision provisions of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (3rd Edition 2004 and the approved 2005 Interims). Experience in using the AASHTO codes will be discussed and observations on the adequacy and gaps, comparison with the European Standard Code, and recommendations for immediate and long term needs will be presented.

Jan 1, 2013

By Dan A. Brown

The New Mississippi River Bridge (MRB) employed conventional design-bid-build procurement, but the bidding process included the opportunity for pre-qualified bidders to develop and propose confidential Alternative Technical Concepts (ATC?s) for evaluation and approval in advance of bidding. The ATC process provides a mechanism for value-engineering prior to bid, with incentives and opportunities for both the owner and the bidding contractor. The contract described in this paper is for the river bridge composed of a cable-stayed crossing with two pylons and the anchor piers on each side of the river. The Massman-Traylor-Alberici (MTA) team developed a re-designed foundation system for the main pylon and anchor foundations which utilizes their equipment and experience along with field load test measurements to optimize the foundations. The paper describes the experience with the use of the pre-bid ATC process on the project from the perspective of the bidder, and outlines some of the benefits and limitations of this concept with respect to foundation design and construction. Some keys for success are identified and impediments to the effective implementation of the process are described.

Jan 1, 2011

By Dan A. Brown

The following paper was written by Dr. Dan A. Brown, P.E. Brown is an Associate Professor at Auburn University's Department of Civil Engineering. The paper was originally presented at a FHWA's Transportation Research Board meeting and is presented here with the author's consent. Construction and design of drilled shaft foundations in hard pinnacle limestone requires flexibility from all parties involved due to the variability of the subsurface conditions. This article describes some strategies which have been found useful in the Birmingham, Alabama area. The importance of well trained and experienced field personnel in these conditions is noted. It is also vital that engineers understand the construction challenges so as to provide both quality assurance and cost effectiveness in design and in the specifications.

Jan 1, 1991

By Gyimah Kasali

Rapid Load Testing was performed as part of an extensive drilled pier testing program for the University of California Berkeley Capital Improvement Program. The purpose of the program was to: (1) Verify the axial compressive design capacity values for the planned 24" piers, and to estimate the capacity of the existing 30" CIDH piers, and (2) To evaluate the seismic performance of the proposed drilled shafts. The Fundex PLT was used since the loading period of the PLT is very similar to the period of a seismic event, making it an ideal tool to model the pier response to seismic events. "Performance-based design" of structures subject to seismic loads has been of particular interest to UC Berkeley Seismic Review Committee and the Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center. The comparison of static tests to Rapid Load testing also provided valuable correlations. The program represents one of the most comprehensive drilled pier test programs on the West Coast. The testing program consisted of Rapid Load Testing using the Fundex PLT on 6 drilled piers. Rapid Load Tests were followed by conventional static compression and tension tests on selected piers, followed by another cycle of rapid load tests on the statically tested piers. The piers featured extensive instrumentation to allow detailed interpretation of the test result. Correlations were drawn to compare static load test result to that of the PLT in the particular soil profile, and the PLT also provided the data to analyze the ultimate seismic capacity of the piers. The load test results indicate that the ratio of interpreted failure load from the PLT data to the corresponding load from the static load test data is about 1.2 to 1.3 for the clayey soils underlying the test site. The results also indicate that the PLT offers an economical approach to defining the stiffness of drilled pier foundations subjected to seismic loads for use in performance-based design.

Jan 1, 2002

By Ian Vaz, Takefumi Takuma

"The New Orleans area has been repeatedly flooded by major storms and hurricanes since its French colonial era. After severe flooding in May 1995, the U.S. Congress authorized a massive flood protection project called the Southeast Louisiana Urban Flood Control Program (SELA) in 1996 to improve interior drainage in Orleans, Jefferson, and St. Tammany parishes. However, the project was not fully funded before the landing of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and Hurricane Rita, which breached many of the area’s levees and flooded 80 percent of the city. Finally, the project was fully funded in 2008 and has been worked on towards its 2017 completion. Another large project simultaneously worked on in the area is the Hurricane and Storm Damage Risk Reduction System (HSDRRS). This system was designed for a 100-year level of flood risk reduction. One particular project within the HSDRRS rendered successful due to an unconventional method of pile driving that was utilized to install sheet piles to reinforce an existing concrete I-wall. This paper will discuss how and why this non-vibratory method of sheet pile installation allowed the project to be successfully completed ahead of schedule.INTRODUCTIONSteel sheet piles were utilized on many of the SELA and HSDRRS projects for permanent cutoff walls under concrete I-walls or T-walls or for temporary earth retaining walls of drainage structures. Although the SELA Project was established in 1996 after severe flooding the year before, hardly any work was done on it until the two catastrophic storms Hurricanes known as Katrina and Rita triggered its revival. These two hurricanes also triggered the HSDRRS soon after the storms’ devastation. The SELA project authorized to improve interior drainage systems while the HSDRRS project was authorized to raise or restore levees and floodwalls mainly along Lake Pontchartrain, the Mississippi River, and Lake Borgne in addition to other areas. Figure 1 shows the SELA Projects that have been completed, are still under construction, or approved for construction. The projects fully highlighted in yellow within the map specified the press-in piling method. These improvements included drainage systems, pump stations, surge walls, and outfall canals as enhanced protection for future storms similar to Hurricane Katrina that caused so much damage by inundating the New Orleans area in August and September 2005 respectively (Facts and Figures, 2012). The completion of these projects were the responsibility of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New Orleans District.Due to the fact that many of the projects were in densely populated areas, the Army Corps of Engineers specified a non-impact, non-vibratory press-in piling method for driving and extracting sheet piles for many of the projects to mitigate noise and vibration impacts. The soft soil conditions in the New Orleans area was also a contributing factor in the Army Corps of Engineers’ decision to specify this piling method due to the risk of settlement for existing historical as well as modern structures. In addition, there were other projects that elected to use the press-in method without any contractual requirements. One of these projects was the Inner Harbor Navigational Canal Reach II Emergency Interim Repair which was part of the HSDRRS project that has been under construction since its authorization in 2005 (Facts and Figures, 2012)."

Jan 1, 2017

By B. B. Broms

Embankment piles are common in the Scandinavian countries (Kjellman, 1940) and in Southeast Asia as support of fills, light structures, bridge abutments and deep excavations (Eide, 1968) as described in the following. Untreated timber piles are often used for light structures and shallow fills when the ground water level is high since they are inexpensive and readily available. When the applied loads are relatively high precast concrete piles and steel piles are preferred. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Embankment piles carry the load from a fill or a struc-ture either through skin friction along the sides of the piles (Fig. 1a) or through a precast concrete slab or through pile caps at the top of the piles (Fig. 1b). When the load is carried by skin friction it is often economical to use small diameter timber piles because of the large surface area (Asplund, 1939). For precast concrete or steel piles concrete caps are used to transfer the load to the piles due to the relatively high capacity of the piles since the skin friction resistance alone is not sufficient to transfer the load to the piles.

Jan 1, 2010

By David E. Albus, Ahmadreza Mortezaie, Bidjan Ghahreman

The structural evaluation of seismic performance of an existing hospital in Long Beach, California, required spring constants of foundation elements. The structure included support by deep foundation elements comprised of belled (underreamed) caissons. The available relationships in the governing building code (ASCE41-13) to compute axial stiffness is not applicable due to the belled configuration of the caissons. The large diameter of the bells required consideration of the foundation medium to the axial stiffness; a detail not clearly described in ASCE 41-13. Furthermore, prescriptive equations in ASCE 41- 13 used to estimate lateral stiffness only consider pile groups with the assumption that the only source of lateral stiffness is the axial reaction of individual piles. These assumptions were invalid for the project at hand where all caissons are configured as single foundation elements, not a pile group. In the present work, the approach taken to estimate seismic stiffness of single-belled caissons is described which accounts for the elastic behavior of the foundation medium below the bell base and lateral behavior of single-pile shafts. Results of the work provide a more satisfactory derivation of the spring constants consistent with current modeling methods. INTRODUCTION Seismic evaluation of an existing hospital in Long Beach, California, required geotechnical investigation followed by site-specific ground motion analysis. This evaluation was required by the Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development (OSHPD) in order to meet the requirements of the Structural Performance Category 4D (SPC-4D) published as a part of the 2016 California Building Code, CBC (Section 3412A). SPC-4D utilizes ASCE41-13, as modified by OSHPD, and involves two seismic performance objectives: BSE-1E (20% probability of exceedance in 50 years) and BSE-2E (5% probability of exceedance in 50 years). Spring constants and capacities of foundation elements were needed for evaluation of the structural performance of the building subjected to these two performance objectives. Our review of the as-built foundation plans indicated that both shallow footings and caissons were used for support of the structure. The plans demonstrated that all caissons are belled (under-reamed) and are individual, i.e. not part of pile groups. In this paper, the subject site condition and foundation elements are described first. This is followed by details of assessing spring constants and vertical capacities for belled caissons. The new requirements of the 2016 CBC concerning the evaluation of critical facilities will likely entail evaluation of other structures with belled caissons due to the more extensive use of these foundations in the past. This paper proposes a method to address the conditions of individual belled caissons not explicitly considered in the current code provisions.

Jan 1, 2018

By Mike Neill, O&apos

? Bypass soft soils near the surface ? Resist uplift loads ? Resist lateral loads ? Bypass scourable soils ? Bypass liquefyable soils ? Mitigate movement of expansive or frozen soils ? "Tune" foundations for vibrating machinery

Jan 1, 1998

By N. Som

The pile capacity in cohesive and granular soils depends on a number of parameters. The values of these parameters as recommended by Indian Standard Code of Practice vary over wide ranges. A designer often finds it difficult to select appropriate values of these parameters for realistic estimate of a pile capacity. The present paper makes a critical review of the values of the parameters given in Indian Standard Code of Practice and suggests a realistic approach to selecting them in the light of recent research.

Jan 1, 1996

By Harry G. Poulos

Ground movements can arise from a large number of sources and can have a significant effect on nearby piles and deep foundations. The loading of the piles by ground movements is a different mechanism to that arising from direct applied loading to the pile head, and consequently it is not generally possible to adequately analyze the effects of ground movements simply by applying some type of equivalent loading to the pile head. The main effects of ground movements are the development of additional movements, axial forces and bending moments in the piles, and thus the key design aspects are related to movements and to the structural integrity of the pile. However, the ultimate geotechnical load carrying capacity is generally not affected by the ground movements themselves. This paper will describe an approach to the analysis of ground movement effects on piles, considering axial and lateral movements separately. Some of the main features of pile response will be discussed for three specific problems involving ground movements: piles near and within embankments, piles near an excavation for a pile cap, and piles subjected to seismic ground motions.

Jan 1, 2006

By Walter Ensinger

Special foundation works is one of the most innovative sectors in civil engineering and construction. Both engineering techniques and construction machinery are undergoing continu­ous further development. These developments are providing ways to meeting the world-wide requirement for special geotechnical works even faster, even better and more efficiently. Unfortunately, accident prevention organisations have had to realise that the figures on in­dustrial accidents in special foundation works are still above average in number. The Safety & Environmental Working Group of the EFFC thereupon started to carry out a survey on acci­dents occurring in this sector and used this information as a basis for the preparation of acci­dent statistics and an accident analysis. The objective of this undertaking is to determine key accident occurrences and their causes and to consequently determine measures for improved health and industrial safety.

Jan 1, 2002

By Allan Sylvester

Construction of the Shot Tower Metro Station in Baltimore, Maryland was performed in two phases. In the first phase, a contractor was retained to excavate the station in order to construct twin tunnels from the Shot Tower Station to the John Hopkins Station. The retention system for this 70' deep excavation consisted of a Soldier Pile in Tremie Concrete (SPTC) wall supported by cross-lot bracing. In phase two, The Clark Construction Group, Inc. was retained to construct the station interior structure, two entrances, two station ancillary shaft structures and the track work for the station and tunnel. The excavation for the construction of the two entrances adjacent to the 70' deep station SPTC wall had to proceed prior to completion of the station structure due to the tight construction schedule. A system of overlapping secant piles was specified as a vertical support of excavation element for the West Entrance. The secant piles would have provided a watertight, rigid support to resist the load from the SPTC wall constructed in phase one. A watertight system was required in order to minimize the settlement of adjacent buildings supported on wood piles. Clark Construction was concerned with the constructability, cost and performance of the specified secant piles and looked for other innovative methods of providing a watertight and rigid system. Substitution of a reinforced slurry wall in lieu of the secant piles was cost prohibitive due to the additional cost of concrete placed under tremie. Clark, being familiar with cement-bentonite cut-off walls and slurry wall construction procedures, proposed the construction of a PSHG wall, in lieu of the secant piles. The PSHG wall construction consisted of trenching 30" wide by 20' long by 60' deep panels under a self-hardening slurry. Once the excavation for a panel was completed, a 60' deep prefabricated soldier beam and lagging panel was placed in the slurry. The slurry design mix then self-hardened within the cure time, allowing excavation for the structure to proceed This paper will discuss the design, details and construction methods used on the PSHG wall and will compare the advantages of the PSHG system to conventional support systems.

Jan 1, 1997

By Dan A. Brown

Outline ? Basic Concept of ACIP Piles ? Factors Affecting ACIP Pile Performance ? Applications: - Favorable Conditions - Unfavorable Conditions ? Design for Axial Loading ? Lateral Loading Considerations ? Summary & Conclusions

Jan 1, 2004

By N. Charue

An international prediction event was carried out within the framework of a 30-pile testing program organized in a sandy soil in Belgium (Limelette). That program called upon sev­eral testing methods: static load tests, Statnamic testing, and dynamic testing. This paper provides a summary of received predictions and results obtained from the static pile load tests, which were carried up to failure of the instrumented piles. The comparison between predictions is made using load-settlement curves with reference to the results of the static load tests. The predictions are based on a geotechnical approach using an extensive soil investigation program and a dynamic approach using the dynamic load test data.

Jan 1, 2002