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By C. D. Ramsden

During the war years of 1941 to 1945, maintenance of mine locomotives and other mine equipment took the form of rebuilding rather than of renewing. Purchase of new parts became increasingly difficult and mine operators found it necessary to maintain equipment by salvaging old parts. Mine-locomotive wheels, although not representing a high cost per pound of material, contain a considerable amount of steel and without rebuilding would have to be scrapped long before even a moderate percentage of the steel in the wheel is actually consumed. Many mine operators have been rebuilding locomotive wheels for several years with automatic open are-welding equipment. In 1927, the Pittsburgh Coal Co. started such a program, using a single Westinghouse automatic welding head. Since that time, many refinements have been added, until in 1944 the setup was operating very efficiently. A desire to increase wheel life and to hold down rising costs led the company in 1944 to investigate the possibilities of the under-flux are-welding process for wheel rebuilding, although at that time, little or no work had been done on multiple pass or "build-up" welding with the underflux arc. Work with this process had been confined largely to welding together flat plates in a "down hand" position. Possibilities for savings were intensified by the fact that the company has 300 locomotives in operation, using actively or as spares 1200 sets of wheels. During 1942 and 1943, about 500 sets of wheels were sent each year to the company's maintenance shop at Library, Pa., for rebuilding. Based on having 800 sets in service (many of the company's heavy locomotives have three sets of trucks), the average life of a set of wheels was approximately 19 months. Anything that could be done to increase wheel life promised sizable annual savings. Open Arc Welding With the open arc process, a set of wheels could be rebuilt for about 40 pet of the cost' of new wheels. Underflux arc welding gave promise of greatly increased welding speeds, more homogeneous, dense deposits and the chance for use of a wider range in welding-wire compositions. Against this was ranged the higher cost of materials and the cost of developing the process from the theory to a practical reality. Since 1927, when a single open arc head was placed in operation, fixed welding procedures had been gradually developed, a positioner for handling a set of wheels was built, and a second head was placed in operation in order to weld two wheels simultaneously. The fixture, or positioner, which was built to position and turn the wheels under the two welding heads, included a motor drive, controlled by a rheostat, which rotated the wheels through a double set of speed reducers and a removable jaw coupling attached to one end of the axle of the wheel truck.

Jan 1, 1947

By C. D. Ramsden

During the war years of 1941 to 1945, maintenance of mine locomotives and other mine equipment took the form of rebuilding rather than of renewing. Purchase of new parts became increasingly difficult and mine operators found it necessary to maintain equipment by salvaging old parts. Mine-locomotive wheels, although not representing a high cost per pound of material, contain a considerable amount of steel and without rebuilding would have to be scrapped long before even a moderate percentage of the steel in the wheel is actually consumed. Many mine operators have been rebuilding locomotive wheels for several years with automatic open are-welding equipment. In 1927, the Pittsburgh Coal Co. started such a program, using a single Westinghouse automatic welding head. Since that time, many refinements have been added, until in 1944 the setup was operating very efficiently. A desire to increase wheel life and to hold down rising costs led the company in 1944 to investigate the possibilities of the under-flux are-welding process for wheel rebuilding, although at that time, little or no work had been done on multiple pass or "build-up" welding with the underflux arc. Work with this process had been confined largely to welding together flat plates in a "down hand" position. Possibilities for savings were intensified by the fact that the company has 300 locomotives in operation, using actively or as spares 1200 sets of wheels. During 1942 and 1943, about 500 sets of wheels were sent each year to the company's maintenance shop at Library, Pa., for rebuilding. Based on having 800 sets in service (many of the company's heavy locomotives have three sets of trucks), the average life of a set of wheels was approximately 19 months. Anything that could be done to increase wheel life promised sizable annual savings. Open Arc Welding With the open arc process, a set of wheels could be rebuilt for about 40 pet of the cost' of new wheels. Underflux arc welding gave promise of greatly increased welding speeds, more homogeneous, dense deposits and the chance for use of a wider range in welding-wire compositions. Against this was ranged the higher cost of materials and the cost of developing the process from the theory to a practical reality. Since 1927, when a single open arc head was placed in operation, fixed welding procedures had been gradually developed, a positioner for handling a set of wheels was built, and a second head was placed in operation in order to weld two wheels simultaneously. The fixture, or positioner, which was built to position and turn the wheels under the two welding heads, included a motor drive, controlled by a rheostat, which rotated the wheels through a double set of speed reducers and a removable jaw coupling attached to one end of the axle of the wheel truck.

Jan 1, 1947

By C. M. Shigley

Tan record of the largest magnesium plant in the country utilizing sea water as a primary raw material stands as another victory in the struggle for large-scale production of pure chemical elements from the oceans. Bromine was the first element to be economically and commercially recovered when, in 1933, a six million pound per year unit was built on the Atlantic Coast near Wilmington, North Carolina, by the Ethyl-Dow Chemical Co.1 The bromine was reacted with ethylene to produce ethylene dibromide, a necessary associate of tetraethyl lead in ethyl antiknock fluid. Within eight years that plant was doubled and redoubled, and another large unit was put into operation at Freeport, Texas, taking bromine from the Gulf of Mexico. In 1940, in fortunate anticipation of the impending demand for magnesium and the limitations of the production from natural brines, the Dow Chemical Co. turned again to the sea, and designed and erected a plant at Freeport to produce 18,000,000 lb. of magnesium per year from sea water.2 In March 1941, two months after the new plant had been put into successful operation, construction of an 18,000,000-lb. Government-financed addition was started. Late in 1941, as a part of the $400,000,000 defense program intended to produce 600,000,000 t0 700,000,000 lb. of magnesium per year, Dow was asked to build and operate for the Government a 72,000000-lb. plant near its original plant at Freeport. Within a few days after the Japanese made their attack at Pearl Harbor, preparation of a site was started at Velasco, Texas, for the construction of the Texas plant of the Dow Magnesium Corporation-the largest known magnesium plant utilizing sea water as its raw material. Less than six months after the first piling was driven, urgently needed magnesium was in steady production. Five months later, the plant had exceeded its rated capacity. It remained above rated production until the general magnesium curtailment was applied to Government-owned plants in September 1944. Credit for the construction and operation record of the Dow magnesium plant must be divided among the efforts of a very determined group of men, an extremely favorable location, and a simple process. It is with the two latter aspects of the plant that this article will deal. The site for the new enterprise was chosen near Velasco, Texas, on property bordering the Brazos River at a point approximately 6 miles inland from the original magnesium plant and y miles inland from the Freeport Harbor on the Gulf of Mexico. This location was far enough away from the operating units to reduce both interference from construction and the vulnerability of closely bunched manufacturing operations to the then feared air attack. Yet the distance inland was not too great for the economical construction of a barge canal from the harbor to serve both the transportation of raw

Jan 1, 1945

By J. O. Lewis, Carl H. Beal

Introduction ............................... 492 Theories Relating to the Recovery of Oil.................. 493 Methods Commonly Employed for the Estimation of Future Production..... 495 Saturation Method........................... 495 Production Curve Method....................... 496 Production per Acre Method.....................: 496 Appraisal Curves.............................. 498 Derivation and Construction...................... 498 Comparison of Appraisal Curves of the Osage and Nowata Fields...... 505 Use of Appraisal Curves........................ 506 Accuracy of the Apprais?l Curves and Their Sources of Error........ 508 Relation Between Future Productions of Wells of Equal Output....... 510 Use of Appraisal Curves for the Derivation of Generalized Future Decline Curves. 513 Theory of Generalized Curves Showing the Decline in Production...... 513 Suggested Methods for Making Closer Estimates.............. 517 Use of Logarithmic Coordinate Paper.................... 518 Summary................................ 520 Introduction Oil wells usually reach their maximum daily output shortly after they are completed. From that time they decline in production, the rapidity of decline depending on the output of the wells and on other factork governing their productivity. The production curve of a well shows the amount of oil produced per unit of time for several consecutive periods; if the conditions affecting the rate of production are not changed by outside influences, the curve will be fairly regular, and, if projected, will furnish useful knowledge as to the future production of the well. By the aid of this knowledge the value of a property maybe judged, and proper depletion and depreciation charges may be made on' the books of the

Jan 1, 1918

By AIME AIME

FORMATION of a new company through the union of two familiar names in the mining and metallurgical world has just been announced. J. V. N. Dorr and E. L. Oliver have united the businesses and assets of The Dorr Company and Oliver United Filters, Inc., of which they are the respective heads, by the formation of the Dorr-Oliver Corporation under their joint management, and stockholders have approved the merger.

Jan 1, 1931

By T. O. Breitling

Two significant problems In mill design are environmental control and cost reduction. Environmental control is predicted to be 5-10% of total plant costs in some parts of the U.S. Operating and design companies will assign this new "unit operation" a place in the early flow sheets. More advanced environmental control will add to both capital and operating costs, so mill designers will strive to reduce other costs.

Jan 1, 1970

Brushy Creek mine is located near the center of a linear, 40 mile long belt of mineralization that extends south from St. Joe Minerals Corp.'s Viburnum division. The mine area includes a segment of 5.4 miles long of this new mining region along which eight mines are presently operating. The geology of the area is relatively simple; the rock formations have not been disturbed through folding or extensive faulting.

Jan 7, 1973

By Kenyon Burch

ONE of the advantages presented by electric drive in many classes of work is the ease with which the electric motor can be controlled automatically. In a large number of cases certain features of the control are automatic-for example, the rate of acceleration may be limited automatically or the equipment may be stopped automatically at the limit of travel-but the equipment is started and ordinarily is stopped by hand. . In other cases the motion of the machinery is utilized to start, control the: speed, and stop the motor automatically, independently of any operator. A considerable proportion of the large mine hoists now in use have certain automatic features, particularly protective devices against over-winding, and, in some classes of electric hoists, devices for preventing excessive acceleration or retardation. The large automatic hoists discussed in this paper, however, are completely automatic, i.e., capable of snaking their trips without the presence of an operator at the control levers. According to circumstances, various advantages may be obtained by automatic control, chief of which are decreased power consumption', increased precision and safety of operation, and decreased, cost of attendance. The first step in the analysis of a prospective automatic mine hoist is to determine whether automatic operation is feasible at all. If men are to be hoisted, or levels changed, the attention of an operator is required for these purposes; but tinder some conditions it may be entirely practicable and advantageous to build the equipment so that, while provision is made for hoisting mien or changing levels, ore can be hoisted automatically from, any one level. If, however, an operator's attention is required every few minutes for changing levels, handling men or drills, or other work requiring hand control, it is obvious that automatic operation between times will not be of any, practical benefit.

Jan 3, 1916

By M. R. J. Wyllie, F. Morgan, P. F. Fulton

The importance of formation factor, F, not only in electric logging but as a fundamental rock parameter has recently been stressed.',: The desirability of investigating the range of variation of the resistivity index exponent, n, in the relationship I = S ;", where I is the resistivity index and Sw the water saturation as a fraction of the void volume of a porous medium, has also been urged.3 The magnitude and variation of n with saturation and rock texture is a subject not only of theoretical interest but also one of prime importance in the interpretation of electric logs. A simple technique has recently been developed which enables both F and u to he measured with high accuracy and which may also find acceptance as a convenient method for the determination of irreducible saturation attainment in the restored state method of core analysis. Experience has taught that reproducible measurements of F are possible only if the resistance measuring electrodes are so arranged with respect to a plane face on a porous medium that they are able to make electrical contact with substantially all entry pores in that plane. In practice this may be achieved by using a platinized-platinum gauze electrode backed by some absorbent material (such as felt) which has been saturated with a fluid identical with that used to saturate the porous medium. Applicatiorl of pressure to the electrode and absorbent material then forces the gauze against the plane face of the porous medium and simultaneously squeezes saline solution through the meshes of the gauze. By this means the electrode is in continuous aqueous contact with all pores and satisfactory and reproducible low resistance contact with the porous medium is achieved. Clearly this method, although satisfactory for measurements of F, cannot be applied to the making of continuous resistance measurements on a porous medium while capillary pressure desaturation is being carried out. However, accepting the principle that for satisfactory results electrical contact must be made between a measuring electrode and all pores adja- cent to that electrude, methods of bringing electrodes into intimate contact with the surfaces of porous media were investigated. Two methods were ultimately found to be satisfactory: in the one, the metal electrode is formed on the required portion of the porous medium by the use of a metal spray gun, while in the second the electrode is painted on with an ordinary camel's hair brush. The first method has the advantage of permitting the use of any metal which can be sprayed, but has the disadvantage of requiring rather elaborate and expensive equipment. The second method is presently limited to silver electrodes although in principle other metals, e.g. platinum or gold, could be used. Moreover, the method is so simple and cheap, and has been found to be so satisfactory that it will be described in some detail. The core being investigated is cut into a right circular cylinder and is extracted and dried in the usual manner. The ends are then lightly painted with silver conducting paint* of the type used in printed electrical circuits. The quantity of paint used is not critical but the recommended, minimum compatible with entirely coating the core ends is recommended, particularly on the end that contacts the barrier. The core is then dried at atmospheric temperature for one hour or for shorter periods at any suitable elevated temperature up to about 110°C. It will be found that silver coatings so prepared are not only strongly adherent but also permeable and the core may be the core may be desaturated by the ordinary capillary pressure technique through one of the coated faces. The same permeability is characteristic also of thin metal coatings formed using the spray-gun technique. An ordinary Lucite capillary pressure desaturation cell has been adapted to a form suitable for measuring the resistivity of the saturated silver faced cores both at 100 per cent saturation (i.e., F) and at intermediate saturations down to the irreducible minimum. This has been achieved as follows: A Coors porcelain barrier, having a displacement pressure of c 30 psi was grooved across a diameter. Dimensions of this groove were c 1 mm deep and 1 mm wide at the top. The groove was then painted thickly with silver conducting paint, the paint in the groove being extended lightly over the edges of the groove for a distance of c 1 mm on each side. A 30 gauge silver wire was then arranged in the groove in a form of a spring bow, each end of the silver being held at diamet~ically opposite ends of the groove by means of plastic cement. The arc of the bow at its highest point was arranged to be a millimeter or so above the face of the barrier, while one end of the bow wire was led by means of a pressure-tight connection through the wall of the capillary pressure cell. The groove in the barrier was then Surrounded by suitably cut portions of Kleenex in the conventional manner so as to ensure capillary continuity from core to barrier, and the core placed on the barrier. The weight of the core distorted the silver spring bow and good electrical contact was thereby made between the outside of the cell and the lower painted silver electrode. Electrical connection to tile top painted silver

Jan 1, 1951

By M. R. J. Wyllie, F. Morgan, P. F. Fulton

The importance of formation factor, F, not only in electric logging but as a fundamental rock parameter has recently been stressed.',: The desirability of investigating the range of variation of the resistivity index exponent, n, in the relationship I = S ;", where I is the resistivity index and Sw the water saturation as a fraction of the void volume of a porous medium, has also been urged.3 The magnitude and variation of n with saturation and rock texture is a subject not only of theoretical interest but also one of prime importance in the interpretation of electric logs. A simple technique has recently been developed which enables both F and u to he measured with high accuracy and which may also find acceptance as a convenient method for the determination of irreducible saturation attainment in the restored state method of core analysis. Experience has taught that reproducible measurements of F are possible only if the resistance measuring electrodes are so arranged with respect to a plane face on a porous medium that they are able to make electrical contact with substantially all entry pores in that plane. In practice this may be achieved by using a platinized-platinum gauze electrode backed by some absorbent material (such as felt) which has been saturated with a fluid identical with that used to saturate the porous medium. Applicatiorl of pressure to the electrode and absorbent material then forces the gauze against the plane face of the porous medium and simultaneously squeezes saline solution through the meshes of the gauze. By this means the electrode is in continuous aqueous contact with all pores and satisfactory and reproducible low resistance contact with the porous medium is achieved. Clearly this method, although satisfactory for measurements of F, cannot be applied to the making of continuous resistance measurements on a porous medium while capillary pressure desaturation is being carried out. However, accepting the principle that for satisfactory results electrical contact must be made between a measuring electrode and all pores adja- cent to that electrude, methods of bringing electrodes into intimate contact with the surfaces of porous media were investigated. Two methods were ultimately found to be satisfactory: in the one, the metal electrode is formed on the required portion of the porous medium by the use of a metal spray gun, while in the second the electrode is painted on with an ordinary camel's hair brush. The first method has the advantage of permitting the use of any metal which can be sprayed, but has the disadvantage of requiring rather elaborate and expensive equipment. The second method is presently limited to silver electrodes although in principle other metals, e.g. platinum or gold, could be used. Moreover, the method is so simple and cheap, and has been found to be so satisfactory that it will be described in some detail. The core being investigated is cut into a right circular cylinder and is extracted and dried in the usual manner. The ends are then lightly painted with silver conducting paint* of the type used in printed electrical circuits. The quantity of paint used is not critical but the recommended, minimum compatible with entirely coating the core ends is recommended, particularly on the end that contacts the barrier. The core is then dried at atmospheric temperature for one hour or for shorter periods at any suitable elevated temperature up to about 110°C. It will be found that silver coatings so prepared are not only strongly adherent but also permeable and the core may be the core may be desaturated by the ordinary capillary pressure technique through one of the coated faces. The same permeability is characteristic also of thin metal coatings formed using the spray-gun technique. An ordinary Lucite capillary pressure desaturation cell has been adapted to a form suitable for measuring the resistivity of the saturated silver faced cores both at 100 per cent saturation (i.e., F) and at intermediate saturations down to the irreducible minimum. This has been achieved as follows: A Coors porcelain barrier, having a displacement pressure of c 30 psi was grooved across a diameter. Dimensions of this groove were c 1 mm deep and 1 mm wide at the top. The groove was then painted thickly with silver conducting paint, the paint in the groove being extended lightly over the edges of the groove for a distance of c 1 mm on each side. A 30 gauge silver wire was then arranged in the groove in a form of a spring bow, each end of the silver being held at diamet~ically opposite ends of the groove by means of plastic cement. The arc of the bow at its highest point was arranged to be a millimeter or so above the face of the barrier, while one end of the bow wire was led by means of a pressure-tight connection through the wall of the capillary pressure cell. The groove in the barrier was then Surrounded by suitably cut portions of Kleenex in the conventional manner so as to ensure capillary continuity from core to barrier, and the core placed on the barrier. The weight of the core distorted the silver spring bow and good electrical contact was thereby made between the outside of the cell and the lower painted silver electrode. Electrical connection to tile top painted silver

Jan 1, 1951

By Shun-ichi Satoh

A NEW method of treating steel by ammonia has recently been intro¬duced into the metallurgical industry, by means of which piston cylinders of internal combustion engines, shafts and other similar steel products can be made more resistant to wear than formerly. In 1929 the writer' published the historical notes and some experiments upon nitrification. He believes that the corrosion of nitrified steel is a matter of importance and worth studying; and as there have been few studies thereof, he has conducted experiments in this respect. L. Guillet,2 in 1927, reported corrosion tests made on nitrified and cemented steels with acid and salt solutions. In 1928, 0. Hengstenberg3 reported the high resistance of nitrified steel to water vapor and air. V. 0. Homerberg4 stated that nitrified steel has high resistance to water, air and salt solution; and G. Hagg5 studied nitrified layers of iron by means of the X-ray. Though F. Hanaman6 in 1913, measured the single potential difference of steel treated with ammonia at above 650° C., no one, it seems, has ever measured the single potential difference of the so-called nitrified steels having extraordinary hardness. The writer measured the single potential differences of nitrified special steels in various solutions with the object of studying the corrosion problem and, if possible, of knowing whether any new physical property would be caused by nitrification.

Jan 1, 1932

George B. CoRless, Chairman. Superintendent, Gulf Coast Division, Humble Oil & Refining Co., Houston, Texas. W. H. Geis, Associate Chairman. Geologist, Los Angeles, California. Benjamin C. Craft, Secretary-Treasurer. Associate Professor, Petroleum Enginecring, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, La. Executire Committee George B. Corless, Chairman. M. Albertson, Production Engineer, Shell Petroleum Corporation, Houston, Texas. D. R. Knowlton, General Production Superintendent, Phillips Petroleum Co., Bartlesville, Oklahoma. R. P. McLaughlin, General Manager, Dominguez Oil Fields Co., Los Angeles, California. Hallan N. Marsh, Production Engineer, General Petroleum Corporation of California, Los Angeles, California. Theron Wasson, Chief Geologist, The Pure Oil Co., Chicago, Illinois. Production Engineering M. L. Haider, Vice-chairman. Petroleum Engineer, Carter Oil Co., Tulsa, Oklahoma. Joseph Chalmers, DeBataafsche Pet. Maatschappij, The Hague, Netherlands. Emile HugUenin, Deputy State Oil and Gas Supervisor, Los Angeles, California. Carl E. Reistle, Jr., Petroleum Engineering Department, Humble Oil & Refining Co., Houston, Texas. Production J. TERry Duce, Vice-chairman. Geologist, The Texas Company, New York, N. Y. Basil B. Zavoico, Associate Vice-chairman. Geologist, The Chase National Bank, New York, N. Y. Engineering Research R. L. Huntington, Vice-chairman. Associate Professor, Petroleum Engineering, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma. Economics Sidney A. SwensrUd, Vice-chairman. Assistant to the President, Standard Oil Co. (Ohio), Cleveland, Ohio. Refinery Engineering Walter Miller, Vice-chairman. Vice-president, Continental Oil Co., Ponca City, Oklahoma. 10

Jan 1, 1938

The first session of the Institute was held at the Smithsonian Institution, on Tuesday evening, February 22d. The members were welcomed to Washington and to the Smithsonian by Prof. Joseph Henry. President Holley responded to the cordial welcome of Professor Henry, and then read an introductory address on the subject of Technical Education. Following the discussion on President Holley's address the following persons, duly proposed and indorsed by the Council, were elected members and associates of the Institute : MEMBERS. Emile R. Abadie,. .. .. St. Louis, Mo. R. J. Anderson,.....Pittsburgh, Pa. Commander L. A. Beardslee,. .. Washington, D. O, Charles Bender,. .. .. New York City. Charming M. Bolton,. .. . Richmond, Va. Thomas E. Bowman,. .. . Silverton, Colorado. Calvin E. Brodhead,. .. . Bethlehem, Pa. M. L. Brosius,. .. .. . Lewistown, Pa. Harvey H. Brown,. .. .. Cleveland, Ohio. James A. Burden,.. .. . Troy, N. Y. J. P. Clemes,. .. .. . Sonora, Mexico. N. H. Cone,. .. .. . Nederland, Colorado. W. F. Durfee,.. .. . New York City. Robert Frazer, Jr.,. .. . Ashland, Pa, Joseph E. Galigher,.. .. . Bingham, Utah. William Golding,.. .. . Steel Works P. O, Pa. Samuel E. Griscom,.. .. . Pottsville, Pa. Gen. E. Burd Grubb,.. .. Beverly, N. J, Arthur R. Guerard,. .. .. Charleston, S. C. Edward Hart,.. .. .. Easton, Pa. Prof. Lewis M. Haupt,. .. . Philadelphia. E. S. Hawley,.....Buffalo, N. Y. John W. Hoffman,.. .. .. Philadelphia. Nelson P. Hulst,.. .. . Milwaukee, Wis. H. C. Humphrey,.. .. . Philadelphia. Ed. P. Jennings,.. .. .Ithaca, N. Y. B. F. Jones,......Pittsburgh, Pa.

THE first session of the Institute was held at the Smithsonian Institution, on Tuesday evening, February 22d. The members were welcomed to Washington and to the Smithsonian by Prof. Joseph Henry. President Holley responded to the cordial welcome of Professor Henry, and then read an introductory address on the subject of Technical Education. Following the discussion on President Holley's address the following persons, duly proposed and indorsed by the Council, were elected members and associates of the Institute : MEMBERS. Emile R. Abadie, - St. Louis, Ma. R. J. Anderson, - Pittsburgh, Pa. Commander L. A. Beardslee, - Washington, D. C. Charles Bender, - New York City. Channing M. Bolton, - Richmond, Va. Thomas E. Bowman, - Silverton, Colorado. Calvin E. Brodhead, - Bethlehem, Pa. M. L. Brosius, - Lewistown, Pa. Harvey H. Brown, - Cleveland, Ohio. James A. Burden, - Troy, N. Y. J. P. Clemes, - Sonora, Mexico. N. H. Cone, - Nederland, Colorado. W. F. Durfee, - New York City. Robert Frazer, Jr., - Ashland, Pa. Joseph E. Galigher, - Bingham, Utah. William Golding, - Steel Works P. O., Pa. Samuel E. Griscom, - Pottsville, Pa. Gen. E. Burd Grubb, - Beverly, N. J. Arthur R. Guerard, - Charleston, S. C. Edward Hart, - Easton, Pa. Prof. Lewis M. Haupt, - Philadelphia. . R. S. Hawley, - Buffalo, N.Y. John W. Hoffman, - Philadelphia. Nelson P. Hulst, - Milwaukee, Wis. H. C. Humphrey, - Philadelphia. Ed. P. Jennings, - Ithaca, N. Y. B. F. Jones, - Pittsburgh, Pa.

Jan 1, 1876

By Y. Oinouye, H. Ries

Of the several interesting physical properties of clay which have claimed the attention of investigators in recent years, none is more important than the behavior of the material when heated to temperatures above those of dehydration. Some of the problems to be solved are: 1. The mineralogical changes that take place in firing. 2. The relation between temperature and change in constitution, shrinkage, porosity, etc. 3. The importance of the time factor, as duration of firing, either in reaching a given temperature, or of exposure to a constant temperature. Mineralogical Changes As a result of fusion, reactions take place between the constituents of a clay, which result in a reorganization of the mass, and the formation of new compounds. Of the new minerals developed, sillimanite is the one usually recorded, and has been referred to by a number of observers.' There appears to be a difference of opinion, however, regarding the temperature at which it is formed. Thus Klein2 notes that sillimanite forms only above 1300" C., while Mellor claims that it can develop below 1200" C., the difference in results being conditioned by the time factor. In Klein's experiments the test pieces were fired in 12 hr., while in Mel-lor's, the temperature rose from 800" to 1180" in 24 hr., and occupied the same time in cooling back to 800".

Jan 1, 1918

By J. R. Bridge, D. A. Vaughan

The phase diagram of the Zr-H system over the range 0 to 65 atomic pet was determined by high temperature X-ray diffraction methods. Results show a eutectoid between a zirconium and the hydride phase. The eutectoid temperature was established at 560±10°C with a eutectoid composition of 42*3 atomic pet H. The hydride phase of the lowest hydrogen content is stable only above the eutectoid temperature, but is formed and retained in a metastable state during reaction of zirconium with hydrogen at temperatures below 560°C. One hydride phase is indicated that exists over the composition range 55 to 65 atomic pet H. RECENT increase in the industrial importance of zirconium has stimulated several investigations of the reaction of zirconium with hydrogen. Review of the literature on interpretation of absorption isotherms' ' shows that attempts were made to relate the observations to the room temperature hydride phases reported by Hagg.3 However, more recently Schwartz and Mallett' reported the existence of a new hydride phase, isomorphous with the lower hydride in the Hf-H system described by Sidhu.4 This phase was found adjacent to the metal in a diffusion gradient sample. In addition to the new phase, Schwartz and Mallett reported on only two of the five hydrides found by Hagg. Gulbransen" confirmed the existence of only three hydrides of

Jan 1, 1957

By H. Ries

INTRODUCTION OF the several interesting physical properties of clay which have claimed the attention of investigators in recent years, none is more important than the behavior of the material when heated to temperatures above those of dehydration. Some of the problems to be solved are: 1. The mineralogical changes that take place in firing. 2. The relation between temperature and change in constitution, shrinkage, porosity, etc. 3. The importance of the time factor, as duration of firing, either in reaching a given temperature, or of exposure to a constant temperature. Mineralogical Changes As a result of fusion, reactions take place between the constituents of a clay, which results in a reorganization of the mass, and the formation of new compounds. Of the new minerals developed, sillimanite is the one usually recorded, and has been referred to by a number of observers.1 There appears to he a difference of opinion, however, regarding the temperature at which it is formed. Thus. Klein2 notes that sillimanite forms only above. 1300° C., while Mellor claims that it can develop below 1200° C., the difference in results being conditioned by the time factor. In Klein's experiments the test pieces were fired in 12 hr., while in Mellor's, the temperature rose from 800° to 1180° in 24 hrs., and occupied the same time in cooling back to 800°.

Jan 9, 1917

By Robert Gorham Morse

This paper presents the results of an investigation made in the metallurgical laboratory of Columbia University, New York City. The object of the investigation was to determine how the tensile strength, the elastic limit, and the size of the grain, of a pure medium-carbon steel are affected by heating to successive temperatures between 500° and 1300° C., with slow cooling therefrom. Since Dr. Sorby's first investigations into the microstructure of steel, the study of the subject has been continued by Professor Martens, Mr. F. Osmond, Professor Arnold, Professor Howe, Mr. A. Sauveur, Mr. J. E. Stead, and many others. Among many valuable and interesting papers I mention the following as having a special bearing upon this investigation.* " Microstructure of Steel," by Albert Sauveur, Trans., xxii., 546 (1893); Microscopic Metallography," by F. Osmond, Trans., xxii., 243 (1893); "The Microstructure of Steel and the Current Theories of Hardening," by Albert Sauveur, Trans., xxvi., 863 (1896); "The Crystalline Structure of Iron and Steel," by John Edward Stead, J. Iron and Steel Inst., 1898. II.—Statement of Experiments. Through the kindness of Mr. N. Lilienberg, New York City, round rods 3/4 of an inch in diameter were obtained, which had been rolled from one ingot. The analysis of the steel was as follows : C, 0.343; Si, 0.027; Mn, 0.221; I?, 0.0266; S, 0.0037 per cent.

Jan 1, 1900

By P. H. Dudley

The piping and segregation of ingots of steel is a comprehensive subject, and must be studied in reference to the different grades of soft, medium, and hard steel, rather than to discuss it in a general manner, as though applicable to all grades. Rail steel, however, will receive the most consideration in this paper, for the wheel-loads of the motive power and rolling stock have doubled from 1890 to 1910. Steel rails and tires which were efficient under the light loads, became less serviceable under the double wheel-loads, quadrupled tonnage, and higher speeds. Bessemer Steel. Bessemer steel of from 0.10 to 0.15 per cent. of carbon, for splice-bars, spikes, and tie-plates, rises in setting, and is cast in bottle-mouthed molds, which must be capped to prevent an overflow from the top. This grade of steel rises in the molds and makes a longer ingot than the volume of molten steel when first teemed. The ingots which are allowed to cool and then cut open, show, particularly in the upper part, large occluded blow-holes, and when they are not oxidized or do not contain foreign matter, weld more or less completely when the steel is rolled or forged above 1,100° C., and it is in this way that the blow-holes are closed in the low-carbon steels. Boiler-Plate and Fire-Box Steel. These grades often contain more or less minute laminations, which are the remains of small blow-holes forming after the setting metal has reached a pasty condition. The blow-holes in the low-carbon steels have not been prevented by usiug deox-idizers, though the ingots are slightly improved so far as the soundness of the steel is concerned. This grade of steel also rises in the molds in setting.

Jan 1, 1914

By William Newton Best

Oil burners, oil furnaces, and methods of installation, have been the subject of many articles, but information concerning oil-burning systems, based upon scientific principles, is still in great demand, especially in the manufacturing districts of our country. Fuel oil, as it is termed (this being the residuum from oil refineries), has for many years been of great service to our manufacturers, and has justified its popularity not only by producing a superior manufactured product, but by turning out approximately 50 per cent. more product than can be made with coa1 fuel under like conditions. To install a system requiring only an oil-storage tank, a small pump, and an oil-supply main with numerous laterals leading to the various burners, furnaces, boilers, etc., is a comparatively simple matter; and, because fuel oil is very volatile, it is not necessary to heat it, even during the winter months in a very cold climate. Furthermore, only a small amount of power is required to atomize fuel oil, this often being done by a positive pressure blower, or by a mechanical burner. An analysis of fuel oil, together with that of various other liquid fuels, is given in Table I.

Jan 1, 1915