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By J. R. Coulter, F. O. Case, H. G. Satterthwaite, B. Harden

During the two years that the Henderson plant has been in operation, a number of technical improvements have been made by the staff of Basic Magnesium, Inc., the effects of which were realized subsequent to the writing of the paper by Major C. J. P. Ball (p. 28j, this volume). Pellet Mix The process as originally installed required the use of peat moss in the mixture going to the chlorinators. This had to be imported from Canada at a considerable cost, and, besides being expensive, constituted a serious fire hazard in the dry climate of Nevada. Experimentation looking toward its elimination had been going on for some time and was actively pushed as soon as operations commenced. It was found that a pellet mix containing no peat, which would chlorinate at a satisfactory rate, could be cast as a fluid slurry, which would set up into a hard mass having the desired porosity. For carrying out this operation, equipment similar to that used in the manufacture of phosphate fertilizer at Anaconda, Mont., was installed and proved eminently successful. The dry materials, with peat moss and raw concentrates entirely eliminated, are mixed with magnesium chloride solution in two Pratt phosphate mixers and the resultant slurry is poured onto two 48-in. slowly moving rubber conveyor belts. By the time the slurry has reached the head pulley, the material has set su4iciently to be broken and sized as desired. The discharge from the casting belts is fed to the four rotary kilns in the preparation plant, where it is dried and coked to the proper degree for subsequent chlorination. With the peatless feed the capacity of the kilns was found to be about double what it had been before, so that the four rotaries suffice for a 10-unit operation, thus making it unnecessary to operate the extruders and tunnel kilns. In addition to saving the cost of the peat, the new system can be operated with about 85 per cent less labor than was formerly required in the preparation plant. The new pellet production system has also made it feasible to install centralized crushing equipment with suitable conveyors and a loading station. Containers of 8000 lb. capacity were substituted for small cubicles of 1000 lb. capacity which formerly were used for charging the chlorinators, and trailer trucks were substituted for the small trains originally provided for transportation from the preparation plant to the chlorinators. These changes resulted in a considerable saving in handling and transportation charges. Handling Molten Metal The molten magnesium originally was ladled from the electrolytic cells into small gas-fired brick-lined cars standing between the cell rows. From these cars the metal nes ium. into ''cheeses'' weighing from 150 to 300 lb. After solidification the

Jan 1, 1944

By C. E Shoenfelt, Gail F. Moulton

Proven and developed oil reserves, and productive capacity increased during 1943 in the fieids of the Rocky Mountain region. Oil production during the year was nearly 45 million barrels, or slightly less than in 1942. The rate of production at the start of 1944 was slightly less than at the start of 1943. Pipe-line projects scheduled for completion during 1944 should permit a substantial increase in the rate of production. Wildcat exploration was more extensive in Montana during 1943 than in other states in the region. The results of wildcat drilling were unsatisfactory, although new oil fields were discovered on the Gebo, Little Buffalo Basin and Steamboat Butte structures of Wyoming, the Gage anticline of Montana, and the Clark Lake structure of Colorado. The area of the structures on which the discovery wells were drilled is known to be considerable, but further drilling is required to determine the importance of these fields. The most important increase in proven reserves resulted from the drilling to newly discovered deeper producing formations in the Elk Basin and other fields of the Big Horn Basin area of northern Wyoming. Lack of a market and unfavorable prices for heavy black oils had prevented complete exploration of favorable areas in the Rocky Mountain region for many years. In particular, the effect on further exploitation of the Big Horn Basin area had been quite serious. The increased demands for all oils created by the war and an increase in price in February 1943, combined later with Government approval of construction of pipe lines from the Big Horn Basin area to the Billings and the Casper districts, provided a basis for undertaking a drilling program. The important additions to reserves were made by drilling in previously discovered fields. The newly discovered fields resulted from drilling on favorable structures which had been known for several years. A continuation of the favorable results obtained during 1943 seems possible only if further testing of the newly discovered fields is satisfactory and if drilling on less favorable known structures or geophysical prospects results in the discovery of new fields. The amount of drilling in the Rocky Mountain states of Colorado, Montana and Wyoming, was about the same during 1943 as .in 1942. However, owing to the fact that a number of wells of large potential production were completed in the Elk Basin field, the total initial production of the prodicing wells was- nearly twice as great for 1943 as for 1942. Explorational activity at the end of 1943 seemed to be directed to geophysical methods, which are required to discover structures hidden beneath the rocks of Tertiary age in the Powder River and other large sedimentary basins. It is in

Jan 1, 1944

By Gail F. Moulton, C. E. Shoenfelt

Proven and developed oil reserves, and productive capacity increased during 1943 in the fieids of the Rocky Mountain region. Oil production during the year was nearly 45 million barrels, or slightly less than in 1942. The rate of production at the start of 1944 was slightly less than at the start of 1943. Pipe-line projects scheduled for completion during 1944 should permit a substantial increase in the rate of production. Wildcat exploration was more extensive in Montana during 1943 than in other states in the region. The results of wildcat drilling were unsatisfactory, although new oil fields were discovered on the Gebo, Little Buffalo Basin and Steamboat Butte structures of Wyoming, the Gage anticline of Montana, and the Clark Lake structure of Colorado. The area of the structures on which the discovery wells were drilled is known to be considerable, but further drilling is required to determine the importance of these fields. The most important increase in proven reserves resulted from the drilling to newly discovered deeper producing formations in the Elk Basin and other fields of the Big Horn Basin area of northern Wyoming. Lack of a market and unfavorable prices for heavy black oils had prevented complete exploration of favorable areas in the Rocky Mountain region for many years. In particular, the effect on further exploitation of the Big Horn Basin area had been quite serious. The increased demands for all oils created by the war and an increase in price in February 1943, combined later with Government approval of construction of pipe lines from the Big Horn Basin area to the Billings and the Casper districts, provided a basis for undertaking a drilling program. The important additions to reserves were made by drilling in previously discovered fields. The newly discovered fields resulted from drilling on favorable structures which had been known for several years. A continuation of the favorable results obtained during 1943 seems possible only if further testing of the newly discovered fields is satisfactory and if drilling on less favorable known structures or geophysical prospects results in the discovery of new fields. The amount of drilling in the Rocky Mountain states of Colorado, Montana and Wyoming, was about the same during 1943 as .in 1942. However, owing to the fact that a number of wells of large potential production were completed in the Elk Basin field, the total initial production of the prodicing wells was- nearly twice as great for 1943 as for 1942. Explorational activity at the end of 1943 seemed to be directed to geophysical methods, which are required to discover structures hidden beneath the rocks of Tertiary age in the Powder River and other large sedimentary basins. It is in

Jan 1, 1944

By J. F. Myers, R. J. Tower

"THERE is nothing new under the sun." All over the world, mineral-dressing engineers are working at their problems, no two of which are alike. Each encounters equipment and process problems. Many devise simple ways and means of overcoming their difficulties. Many of these problems are quite common in the industry, yet, since no one human being seems capable of thinking of everything, these problems at some plants often are looked upon as necessary evils. The purpose of this symposium is to gather together, from competent engineers, devices and practices that have been useful to them. Most of the ideas contributed are not new, yet there is no plant operator, old timer or youngster, who will not find some idea herein that will give him a suggestion for improving his operation. Space does not permit a complete elaboration on all of the contributions offered. Each item is summarized, but this will be ample for those skilled in the art of mineral dressing. A list of contributors appears at the end of the paper, and the superior number at the end of each item identifies its source. GENERAL EQUIPMENT A signal light to show that a steel bin, containing relatively fine, moist ore, is full, can be made by suspending a copper rod in the bin to a sufficient depth to ensure ample contact with the ore. One wire of a 32-volt circuit should be attached to the rod and one to the side of the bin. Sufficient current will flow to make the signal light burn. A 110-volt circuit could be used, but 32 volts ensures safety.10 Fig I shows a circular bin for crushed ore. It is a concrete structure footed on the ground, using no supporting columns. Tailing from the sink-float was used for aggregate. Cross conveyors for discharging ore are not required, nor is a tripper for filling. Segregation is minimized by drawing from different gates. An exhaust fan on top of the bin eliminates condensation due to temperature of the ore.21 A beam with an adjustable point of suspension near the center permits rigging rolls for removal in a very few minutes. This makes unnecessary the lacing of the cable through the hub bolts on one side, around the shaft on the other, and the trouble of balancing the load.8 The ratchet handle on a Symons crusher may be replaced by a drum with a cable wound on it. When the cable is pulled by a crane or hoist it causes the drum to revolve and thus screws or unscrews the bowl. This reduces handwork and materially shortens the time required for the job.3 To spread ore feed from an apron feeder over a belt conveyor, place a heavy steel bar about midway between the top

Jan 1, 1947

By J. F. Myers, R. J. Tower

"There is nothing new under the sun." All over the world, mineral-dressing engineers are working at their problems, no two of which are alike. Each encounters equipment and process problems. Many devise simple ways and means of overcoming their difficulties. Many of these problems are quite common in the industry, yet, since no one human being seems capable of thinking of everything, these problems at some plants often are looked upon as necessary evils. The purpose of this symposium is to gather together, from competent engineers, devices and practices that have been useful to them. Most of the ideas contributed are not new, yet there is no plant operator, old timer or youngster, who will not find some idea herein that will give him a suggestion for improving his operation. Space does not permit a complete elaboration on all of the contributions offered. Each item is summarized, but this will be ample for those skilled in the art of mineral dressing. A list of contributors appears at the end of the paper, and the superior number at the end of each item identifies its source. General Equipment A signal light to show that a steel bin, containing relatively line, moist ore, is full, can be made by suspending a copper rod in the bin to a sufficient depth to ensure ample contact with the ore. One wire of a 32-volt circuit should be attached to the rod and one to the side of the bin. Sufficient current will flow to make the signal light burn. A 110-volt circuit could be used, but 32 volts ensures safety.10 Fig I shows a circular bin for crushed ore. It is a concrete structure footed on the ground, using no supporting columns. Tailing from the sink-float was used for aggregate. Cross conveyors for discharging ore are not required, nor is a tripper for filling. Segregation is minimized by drawing from different gates. An exhaust fan on top of the bin eliminates condensation due to temperature of the ore.21 A beam with an adjustable point of suspension near the center permits rigging rolls for removal in a very few minutes. This makes unnecessary the lacing of the cable through the hub bolts on one side, around the shaft on the other, and the trouble of balancing the load.8 The ratchet handle on a Symons crusher may be replaced by a drum with a cable wound on it. When the cable is pulled by a crane or hoist it causes the drum to revolve and thus screws or unscrews the bowl. This reduces handwork and materially shortens the time required for the job.' TO Spread ore feed from an apron feeder over a belt conveyor, place a heavy steel bar about midway between the top

Jan 1, 1949

By Francis M. Walters

IN spite of the war and the preoccupation of many physical metallurgists with work on secret or confidential problems, definite progress was made during 1944 in our understanding of the behavior of steel and of the effect of alloying elements. During the first two years of the war there was much concern over the possible unavailability of certain alloying elements; this period saw the development of the N.E. (National Emergency) steels. However, the measures taken eased the alloy situation and currently, highly practical problems under study are the graphitization of low-carbon steel and weld-cracking, while investigations of more theoretical interest have concerned hardenability, isothermal reactions, the effect of hydrogen and the interpretation of the notched-bar impact test.

Jan 1, 1945

By C. McDermid

At the request of Mr. C. McDermid, Secretary of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, Salisbury House, London, E. C., England, the following reports of standardization committees are here republished. Mr. McDermid invites members of-the American Institute of Mining Engineers to write him and express their opinion of the various proposals made by the committees. COPY OF THE REPORT OF THE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES STANDARDIZATION COMMITTEE OF THE INSTITUTION OF MINING AND METALLURGY, as adopted by the Central Standardization Committee; Dec. 20, 1906, and submitted to the Council, Jan. 16, 1907.

Mar 1, 1907

By Henry S. Burnholz, Charles Y. Clayton, Francis B. Foley

This work was first undertaken for the U. S. Bureau of Mines, in 1919-20, by C. E. Julihn, superintendent of the station at Minneapolis. Learning of the interest, in this subject, of B. F. Tillson, of the New Jersey Zinc Co., Mr. Julihn and Mr. Foley went to Franklin, N. J., and discussed the matter with him. A conference in Chicago, in November, 1920, was attended by Dr. F. G. Cottrell, who was then Director of the Bureau of Mines, and representatives of the Bureau of Mines and of the hlissouri School of Mines and Metallurgy; at this time a cooperative plan of work was agreed upon by the Bureau of Mines and the Missouri School of Mines. In February, 1921, Mr. 'Tillson arranged a conference on this subject at the time of the annual meeting of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, at which several technical papers were presented. In a paper, the Breakage and Heat Treatment of Hock Drill Stcels, he suggested a program that might be carried out in connection with the investigation of the problem. At this conference Mr. Manning, former Director of the Bureau of Mines, suggested the formation of an advisory committee to the Bureaus of Mines and of Standards for prosecution of this investigation. On Feb. 20, 1922, a secoud conference in New York, at the time of the annual meeting of the American Institute of mlining and Metallurgical Engineers, was attended by representatives of various technical societies. At this meeting, the report of Nov. 20, 1921, of the Chiefs of Divisions of Metallurgy of the Bureaus of Mines and of Standards, was discussed and it was agreed: 1. That the survey recommended by the two bureaus should be undertaken, which survey would have for its object the ascertaining of the present status of the practice of the heat treatment of drill steels, the extent to which the breakage occurs, etc.; and 2. That a report should be presented, of the findings of those who made the survey, to the Advisory Board to the Bureaus of Mines and of Standards. The Bureau of Standards assigned $4000 to the prosecution 01 a three-months' survey, which was carried out in April, May, and June, 1922, of about sixty mines

Jan 1, 1923

By Charles Y. Clayton, Henry S. Burnholz, Francis B. Foley

This work was first undertaken for the U. S. Bureau of Mines, in 1919-20, by C. E. Julihn, superintendent of the station at Minneapolis. Learning of the interest, in this subject, of B. F. Tillson, of the New Jersey Zinc Co., Mr. Julihn and Mr. Foley went to Franklin, N. J., and discussed the matter with him. A conference in Chicago, in November, 1920, was attended by Dr. F. G. Cottrell, who was then Director of the Bureau of Mines, and representatives of the Bureau of Mines and of the hlissouri School of Mines and Metallurgy; at this time a cooperative plan of work was agreed upon by the Bureau of Mines and the Missouri School of Mines. In February, 1921, Mr. 'Tillson arranged a conference on this subject at the time of the annual meeting of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, at which several technical papers were presented. In a paper, the Breakage and Heat Treatment of Hock Drill Stcels, he suggested a program that might be carried out in connection with the investigation of the problem. At this conference Mr. Manning, former Director of the Bureau of Mines, suggested the formation of an advisory committee to the Bureaus of Mines and of Standards for prosecution of this investigation. On Feb. 20, 1922, a secoud conference in New York, at the time of the annual meeting of the American Institute of mlining and Metallurgical Engineers, was attended by representatives of various technical societies. At this meeting, the report of Nov. 20, 1921, of the Chiefs of Divisions of Metallurgy of the Bureaus of Mines and of Standards, was discussed and it was agreed: 1. That the survey recommended by the two bureaus should be undertaken, which survey would have for its object the ascertaining of the present status of the practice of the heat treatment of drill steels, the extent to which the breakage occurs, etc.; and 2. That a report should be presented, of the findings of those who made the survey, to the Advisory Board to the Bureaus of Mines and of Standards. The Bureau of Standards assigned $4000 to the prosecution 01 a three-months' survey, which was carried out in April, May, and June, 1922, of about sixty mines

Jan 1, 1923

By T. G. Madgwick, W. Calder

Production of petroleum increased again during 1929, thus maintaining the steady growth inaugurated by the bringing in of Royalite No. 4 in Turner Valley, Alberta, towards the end of 1924, prior to which a decline over a number of years had been experienced. The growth has been confined to the Province of Alberta, the older production in New Brunswick and Ontario showing declines, although in the latter case considerable activity in the search for new gas structures was maintained and during the last six months two wells were brought in, one at Howard in the Trenton at a depth of 1250 ft., giving 5,500,000 cu. ft., and the other at Tilbury in the Guelph or Salina at 750 ft. giving 9,000,000 cubic feet. As has been the case during the past five years, interest in the search for structure and in the following up and development of areas already recognized has centered in Alberta and adjacent portions of Saskatchewan. This was due in the first instance to the striking of wet gas in the Palaeozoic limestone (Madison) of Turner Valley, some 30 miles south of Calgary, in Royalite No. 4 in October, 1924. The bringing in of other wells of similar importance late in 1928 and in the spring of 1929 which extended the productive area 3 miles southwards led to greatly enhanced drilling activity throughout the structure and adjacent areas and in other parts of Alberta. As a result good strikes of heavy crude oil have been recorded during the year at Ribstone, Oyen, Skiff and Coutts, in each case at moderate depths and in sufficient quanitity to justify prolonged testing. The prospects of a satisfactory production of this grade of oil are very encouraging. Actual oil production in the west is still confined to the Province of Alberta and for all grades of oil totaled 997,359 bbl., which compared with previous years shows a gratifying increase. To this increase the naphtha obtained from the wet gas of Turner Valley has proved the principal contributant, heavy crude also showing an improvement, while the light crude, the product of the Cretaceo-Jurassic sands overlying the Paleozoic of Turner Valley, remains unchanged. This is largely owing to operators casing off these sands in their endeavor to reach the limestone, but, there is evidence that in future more attention will be paid to

Jan 1, 1930

By B. B. Cox

Since our last review of Iraq,' considerable progress has been made not only in exploiting Iraq's potential resources but in building pipe lines to carry the oil to the Mediterranean. No new fields were discovered in 1933. The Naft Khaneh field, discovered in early 1927 by the Khaniqin Oil Co. (subsidiary of the Anglo-Persian Oil Co.), continues to supply the local markets through the Rafidain Oil Co. Kirkuk field, discovered by the Turkish Petroleum Co. Oct. 14, 1927, remained shut in pending the completion of the Mediterranean pipe lines, and the Qaiyarah field, discovered by the same company on Oct. 13,1927, was abandoned in 1928. The principal development of interest during the year was the progress made on construction of the Iraq Petroleum Company's 1152-mile pipe line from Kirkuk to the Mediterranean. The line is double 10-in. and 12-in. pipe for 156 miles west of Kirkuk, where the parallel lines bifurcate, one leg going through British mandated territory to the new port of Haifa and the other through French mandated Syria to Tripoli. Each line may be operated independently of the other. There are three double stations on the Kirkuk-Haditha portion, four single stations on the Tripoli leg, and five on the Haifa in addition to a relief station in the Jordan Valley. Except for the Jordan Valley section and two other short stretches on the Haifa leg where pressures are exceptionally high, the line is single. Sea loading lines will be used exclusively at Tripoli and both sea loading lines and dock loading will be employed at Haifa. All pipe was welded and buried before the end of December, 1933. It is anticipated that enough stations will be completed to make 50 per cent capacity operation possible some time during the latter half of the current year. Some months will then be required in which to fill the line, so that if terminal facilities are ready and no unexpected emergencies arise, partial daily deliveries of Iraq crude may be received at the Mediterranean some time during the final quarter of the current year. Capacity operation of 84,000 bbl. per day is not anticipated much before the middle of 1935. Oil and Gas Production No gas is produced commercially and, except for Naft Rhaneh production, no crude is marketed. Although the Turkish Petroleum Co. and

Jan 1, 1934

By J. E. Tobey

UNQUESTIONABLY, manufactured gas will stage a comeback of such huge proportions as to dwarf its previous history. Timing will depend on two things: the diminishing supply of natural gas and the perfecting of processes for large-scale production of high-Btu gas from, coal. What the timing will be, and how soon the new era will begin for manufactured gas, no one knows. It may be just around the corner and it may be several years, but it is certain to come. It will depend on economic changes, and any major world upheaval might accelerate it tremendously. Supplemental gas for pipelines will come no doubt from two sources at least: (1) synthetic-fuel plants of the coal-chemical group, which produce chemicals and liquid fuels with a tail gas high in methane as a by-product; and (2) large-scale gasification plants, which will produce high-Btu gas entirely or as a major product with chemicals and liquid fuels as by-products. There is important activity at the present time, in the development of new processes and the improvement of those now in existence. The first large-scale gasification plants of the second category probably will be strategically located in the coal fields on or near the long-distance transmission gas lines, and these plants probably will operate jointly with large natural gas storage fields. Inasmuch as virtually all the major gas-transmission lines cross one or more coal fields, such locations will not be difficult to find. It will be a practical necessity to produce a high-Btu gas -that is, 750 to 1000 Btu-in order to maintain the capacity of the main transmission lines and local city distribution systems and further to eliminate the problem of appliance changeovers in the cities. If gasification plants on a medium or smaller scale prove to be economical, local gas utilities no doubt will consider .the construction of such plants to supplement their supply of natural gas. If low-temperature distillation processes like those now being developed by the Pittsburgh Consolidation Coal Co. are successful, and there is reason to believe that they will be, utilities that supply both gas and electricity to communities would find this method particularly attractive, as they could burn the char product directly under power boilers, thereby minimizing thermal

Jan 1, 1953

By R. W. Raymond

(Reprinted With some additions and changes from the Engineering and Mining Journal)] THE death of Prof. Samuel Benedict Christy on the 30th of November,. at the age of 61 years, cuts short a brilliant and influential professional career. He was born in San Francisco, Aug. 8, 1853, and was graduated as Bachelor of Philosophy at the University of California in 1874. For the five years that followed, he studied mining and metallurgy as a post-graduate in the same institution, serving also as instructor in analytical chemistry, and becoming in 1879 instructor in mining and metallurgy¬a position which he held until 1885. During this period he became known also by his contributions to technical literature, the earliest of which, perhaps, was his report on the Monte Diablo coals (in 1875); but the first which drew my attention to him was an exceedingly able discussion (in 1879) of the genesis of the quicksilver deposits of California, in which he followed with much acuteness and originality the lead of Professor Becker, who had been teaching at the University of California. The notion of the thermo-aqueous formation of such deposits was then new; and the laborers in a field now familiar to every student deserve the credit due to pioneers. For some years the subject of quicksilver seems to have occupied much of Christy's attention. In 1877, he described the mines and works at Almaden, Spain; in 1884, the Imperial quicksilver works at Idria, Austria; in 1889, the New Almaden mines of California. But his great work was the creation of the school, of mining and metallurgy at the University of California, which may be said to have begun with his occupancy of a full professorship of these branches. It is not necessary here to recount the early difficulties and perils of the University, and its long struggle for academic independence of political control or interference. The battle is over, and the institution is now upheld by the intelligent loyalty of the citizens of California, without regard to party. But while the issue was uncertain, the development of special schools of applied science was scarcely practicable. Doctor Becker and William Ashburner had given up the school of mines as a hopeless task when Christy, younger and less experienced, took it up. As he wrote me in February, 1901-

Jan 4, 1915

The primary purpose of the Institute is to advance the technologic and engineering arts embraced by it through interchange of knowledge. This can best be clone by the presentation and discussion of technical papers by its members. Short practical papers are especially welcome. An author should always satisfy himself that his material is of a quality that will he a credit to him and to the Institute. The preparation of a good paper frequently leads to a reorientation of the author's thoughts, and publication contributes much to the professional standing of the author. Members are urged to submit papers presenting the results of their work. Attention to the following suggestions will greatly further the prompt and efficient handling of manuscripts. 1. SUBJECTS: The subject must be within the field of the Institute. Original work, the results of field, plant, laboratory or theoretical investigations, new views on old but important problems and occasionally reviews of timely and important subjects of wide interest to our members may constitute the basis of a paper. The mere fact that the work is original does not necessarily justify publication: it must be of a substantial nature, of value to a reasonable number of our members and worthy of permanent record. It is seldom desirable to subdivide the results of a single research for publication in a variety of journals. Previous publication is usually a bar to acceptance. If any part of your paper has been published elsewhere and you regard repetition as absolutely necessary please so state in your covering letter. 2. CONSTRUCTION: Papers should be clearly and concisely written in good English. Care in this regard ensures wider reading and the saving in space permits the Institute to publish more papers. It is the experience of the Papers and Publications Committee that most papers can he improved by condensation. "Readers" who are asked to recommend acceptance or nonacceptance put particular emphasis on the length of the paper and the elimination of unnecessary or any extraneous material. The terminology and units employed should be those current in the particular field. An examination of Institute publications will afford useful guidance in such matters. Webster's New International Dictionary, 1935 edition, is the Institute's authority for spelling and style. Various abbreviations are used habitually; for instance, lb., pound; bbl., barrel or barrels; ft., foot or feet; hr., hour or hours; in., inch or inches; Fig. 1 but Figs. 2 and 3.

Jan 1, 1946

By Marcel R. Daly

EUGENE COSTS, Calgary, Alberta (communication to the Secretary*).¬This new theory to account for the accumulation of commercial deposits of oil and gas, is deliberately and admittedly based on the hypothesis that the origin of these products is organic. Mr. Daly says (page 1142), "Should the organic origin of the petroleum that is found in pools be granted, the following interpretation is offered for the mechanics of its accumulation." But suppose the origin thus accepted by definition be incorrect, then what becomes of the diastrophic theory, Mr. Daly's interpretation? As Mr. Daly remarks himself (same page), "It is obvious that the history of petroleum will have to be entirely different, dependent upon its origin, either from emanations coming from the depths, or from organic decomposition in the strata themselves." Then why should one propound a theory, through which he is endeavoring to trace the history of petroleum, by starting with a definition of its origin? The origin should be the deduction, the forced conclusion of the theory, and not its starting point. Facts alone should be considered first, in any theory worth the name, until sufficient proofs have accumulated to permit of the deduction of a complete explanation for these facts. This would lead one to the origin through a real theory founded on facts, and not based on a preconceived idea perhaps true, but possibly fanciful. Mr. Daly's way can only lead on one road, namely the organic road, and, I repeat, it may be the wrong road. In the case of the petroleum deposits, as .I have endeavored to show in several papers on the subject, to which the reader may refer, the facts clearly lead to the force conclusion that their origin is not one of accumulations of hydrocarbons at first disseminated in the sedimentary strata but the reverse process of subsequent local infiltrations and impregnations of hydrocarbon emanations from the depths. This new theory, therefore, founded on, an erroneous conception of origin cannot be a help in the solution of the petroleum' problem, not any more than were the anti-theory or the hydraulic theory, both of which were also based on the same error, although Mr. Daly is inclined to think that the authors of these two theories did not accept the misconception boldly enough (page 1142). -

Jan 12, 1916

By Herbert H. Uhlig

A STUDY of passivity in chromium-iron alloys holds considerable interest, both because of the present-day practical importance of the stainless steels, and because of the scientific importance attached to the mechanism of their corrosion resistance. Upon the discovery of the passive chromium-iron alloys in 1912, it seemed logical to attribute the observed phenomenal corrosion resistance to a thin, continuous, protective reaction product on the surface. The product was thought to be Cr2O3 or a similar oxide containing both chromium and iron. This mechanism seemed likely in view of Michael Faraday's conjecture that passive iron is not reactive in concentrated nitric acid because of an oxide on the metal surface.† Since 1912, data have accumulated that permit a further exploration into the nature of passivity and provide a new approach to the problem. A summary of the facts lends considerable weight to a mechanism based not on physical protection of an oxide or similar compound, although such compounds may be present on the surface, but to a change in tendency of surface metal atoms to react chemically. This change in reaction tendency is ascribed to chemisorbed films that effectively satisfy residual valence forces of the metal surface, but do not appreciably disturb the positions of metal atoms in the lattice. In other words, formation of a new lattice such as that of an oxide is not a necessary condition for this type of passivity. The decreased reaction tendency of the metal by reason of chemisorbed films can thereby account for low reaction rates of the stainless steels in many media, as well as a noble galvanic potential as is observed. Substances capable of adsorbing on the stainless steels, and hence accompanying the property of passivity, are typically oxygen, nitrites or chromates, but are not in any sense limited to these. Other elements and compounds can also chemisorb, and therefore may also play a major part in the mechanism of passivity in specific media. The mechanism of passivity based on chemisorption or activated adsorption begins with the interpretation Langmuir proposed for his experiments concerning adsorbed oxygen on tungsten.1 He found that adsorbed oxygen was tightly bound, remaining on the tungsten surface above temperatures at which WO3 rapidly volatilizes. The oxygen in such a state did not readily react with hydrogen even at

Jan 1, 1947

THE great subject of interest in American affairs during February was the consideration of the proposed soldier bonus. This proposal was based upon the idea that, because most of the workers of the United States had enjoyed high wages during war, the soldiers were entitled to "adjusted compensa-tion" in order to equalize things. It overlooked the fact that the soldiers, themselves, had the opportunity to enjoy high wages in 1919 and 1920, when rates were highest. Apart from this, the whole project was founded on fallacies and involved what would be nothing less than economic crime. Although it looked as if the measure were destined to be railroaded through Congress, so great a storm of protest was pelted upon Congress that the present outlook is that the whole project will be abandoned. There was probably some increase in the physical volume of business during February. A rise in prices for agricultural products assisted the farmers mate-rially. These developments, however, are not to be construed as presaging any general upward movement. On the contrary, the current year is to be contem-plated as one of serious labor troubles, following inevit-able reductions of wages. These began in February in the form of an extensive strike in the cotton textile industry of New England, accompanied by some rioting in Rhode Island. The coal miners have had numerous conferences, without coming to any encouraging results, and the stage appears to be fully set for a general strike beginning Apr. 1. About the only question now is whether this will comprise both the bituminous and anthracite miners. If the latter refuse to go out, no serious shortage of coal is anticipated, the belief being that the existing stocks together with the output of the non-union mines will supply the demand, which is sub-normal even now. In the metal industries, lead and zinc were dull but stable. The weakening tendency in iron and steel that was manifest during January appeared to be checked, at least temporarily. Copper was charac-terized by a distinct weakness and a considerable decline in the market. This downward movement was inspired by the news during January that several of the important mining companies were taking steps to resume production. During February the demand for copper, both foreign and domestic, was poor.

Jan 3, 1922

By B. B. Zavoico

The oil industry in the Soviet Union closed the 1929-1930 operating year fulfilling its assigned program. During this period of time, however, no basic improvements were noted within the industry. A careful study of the conditions indicates that disorganization in most branches increased continually; that supply and transportation problems are approaching a state of breakdown; that labor problems become increasingly difficult and that the estimates for 1931-1933 period are too large. The production of all Russian fields increased by 27,200,000 bbl., as compared with the 1928-1929 operating year, while the next year's program anticipates a further increase of 46,000,000 bbl., and the 1933 plans call for an amazing total of 330,000,000 bbl., or over 150 per cent, more than the production of the operating year that has just closed. Table 1 shows petroleum production in Russia by individual areas and fields from 1916, and furnishes estimates for the three coming years, which constitute the balance of the Five-year plan. A brief analysis of Table 1 will show that the Soviet Planning Commission anticipates that the fully developed fields of the Apsheron-Baku will double their production by 1933, .as compared with 1929-1930, and that the old Grozny fields, which are already showing a tendency to decline, will increase their output from 44,110,000 bbl. in 1929-1930 to 68,000,000 bbl. in 1933. Furthermore, in 1933 new fields are slated to produce not less than 100,000,000 bbl., a figure which even under most favorable conditions in Russia would be hard to achieve. Of course, Russia could develop such production, because the country is not lacking in the prospective reserves, but the transportation in the country today (as in the past.) is in such poor shape that neither the supply of a gigantic oil industry nor the movement of its products is within the realm of possibility. Table 1 shows the future estimated crude oil production as required by the Five-year plan, and also as reasonably estimated by the author, taking into account natural declines in old fields, slow development of new areas and the deficiency of the transport. While in the 1929-1930 operating year only two major fields underproduced (Surakany and Maikop) and the plan was fulfilled to the extent of 97.4 per cent., the production of the last three months of 1930 ("Shock Quarter") indicated

Jan 1, 1931

By H. W. Graham

The young metallurgist of today who thinks casually of the technical literature of the steel industry might conclude that little has been published concerning the Bessemer process. This conclusion is true as relating to the last decade or two, but there is a fairly voluminous Bessemer literature in the period of 1860 to 1910. Since that time, however, an entirely new level of metallurgical knowledge of steelmaking has been reached; and the present paper is simply an effort to look broadly from this new level and to bring the recorded history of the process up to date. It is an effort to appraise the acid Bessemer method of steelmaking in the light of today's technical knowledge thereof. In this paper matters of history will be dealt with only insofar as they contribute to an understanding of today's situation. Attention will be directed to the apparent causes of past developments in seeking to perceive the true direction of trends now in existence and effective as bearing upon future developments. The paper will discuss the economics of the Bessemer process, but only to the extent that will bear upon the metallurgist's understanding of his responsibility. The problem of the quality of Bessemer steel will be reviewed and examples will be given of the technical data upon which the reasoning of the paper is based. Matters of engineering design, mechanical maintenance, operation and metallurgical investigation will be surveyed. Comparisons will be made between the Bessemer and open-hearth processes for the sake of clear and ready understanding. Production First of all it is considered logical and informative to show how much Bessemer steel has been and is being produced, and the relation of that production to the tonllage made by the open-hearth process. Table 1 shows the tonnages made by the two processes in representative years. It is to be noted that these figures are in net tons of 2000, lb., whereas previous to 1940 the Institute figures were compiled in gross tons. id open-hearth production and steel going into castings are included, since separated data are not available for the early years of the period covered. The ratio shown in Table I is merely the Bessemer tonnage for a given year divided by the open-hearth tonnage of the same

Jan 1, 1941

By H. H. Uhlig

A study of passivity in chromium-iron alloys holds considerable interest, both because of the present-clay practical importance of the stainless steels, and because of the scientific importance attached to the mechanism of their corrosion resistance. Upon the discovery of the passive chromium-iron alloys in 1912, it seemed logical to attribute the observed phenomenal corrosion resistance to a thin, continuous, protective reaction product on the surface. The product was thought to be Cr2O3 or a similar oxide containing both chromium and iron. This mechanism seemed likely in view of Michael Faraday's conjecture that passive iron is not reactive in concentrated nitric acid because of an oxide on the metal surf ace. Since 1912, data have accumulated that permit a further exploration into the nature of passivity and provide a new approach to the problem. A summary of the facts lends considerable weight to a mechanism based not on physical protection of an oxide or similar compound, although such compounds may be present on the surface, but to a change in tendency of surface metal atoms to react chemically. This change in reaction tendency is ascribed to chemisorbed films that effectively satisfy residual valence forces of the metal surface, but do not appreciably disturb the positions of metal atoms in the lattice. In other words, formation of a new lattice such as that of an oxide is not a necessary condition for this type of passivity. The decreased reaction tendency of the metal by reason of chemisorbed films can thereby account for low reaction rates of the stainless steels in many media, as well as a noble galvanic potential as is observed. Substances capable of adsorbing on the stainless steels, and hence accompanying the property of passivity, are typically oxygen, nitrites or chromates, but are not in any sense limited to these. Other elements and compounds can also chemisorb, and therefore may also play a major part in the mechanism of passivity in specific media. The mechanism of passivity based on chemisorption or activated adsorption begins with the interpretation Langmuir proposed for his experiments concerning adsorbed oxygen on tungsten.' He found that adsorbed oxygen was tightly bound, remaining on the tungsten surface above temperatures at which WO3 rapidly volatilizes. The oxygen in such a state did not readily react with hydrogen even at

Jan 1, 1949