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By Frank Firmstone

In the summer of 1842 my father, William Firmstone, was engaged by Charles Jackson, Jr., of Boston, to examine the conditions in the Lehigh valley as a site for blast-furnaces using anthracite for fuel. In consequence of his report, he was further engaged by Mr. Jackson to build a furnace for him and his partners on the Lehigh canal, 2 miles above the mouth of the river at Easton. Work was begun in the fall of 1842, and the first furnace blown-in in 1844. The history of the works, therefore, from 1844 to 1887, when my own connection with them ceased, covers only four years less than the whole period of the rise, culmination, and commencement of the decline in the smelting of iron with anthracite in America, the beginning of which, in a commercial sense, may be put in 1839.' Although this paper, as the title indicates, is concerned almost exclusively with the furnaces at Glendon, still what was done there was more or less influenced by current opinion in the district, and even reflects, to some extent, the changes in opinion and practice with mineral fuel the world over. No. 1 Furnace was built of red brick, on four piers, had three tuyeres and fore-hearth and tymp, as was universal with furnaces using mineral fuel until the introduction of Lurmann's cinder-tuyere. The dimensions and profile are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The first hearth (Fig. 1) was of sandstone; all after were of fire-brick (Fig. 2). The profile was no doubt derived directly from Gibbons's furnace,2 for it appears from W. Firmstone's note-books that in October, 1840, he visited " Gibbons' new furnaces building at Corbyn Hall," and I have an old drawing,

Jan 1, 1910

By J. E. Johnson

(Cleveland Meeting, October, 11,1912.) THE subject of blast-furnace slag is one which has had much consideration, particularly from the scientific standpoint, and several years ago technical literature contained many learned discussions on the oxygen-ratio of the acids and the bases, all on the assumption that acids and bases must be present in a ratio depending on molecular weight and chemical valency. Much work has also been done, sometimes in conjunction with the former, on the total heat and the temperature of initial fusion or softening of various slags. A wider knowledge of the blast-furnace now enables us to say that for practical purposes this work has been of almost no value. It is now generally admitted that on the physical side the important point of a given slag is neither its total heat of fusion nor its softening-point, but its free-running temperature, since this is the critical temperature of the furnace. This temperature bears no definite relation to the softening-temperature, as determined by Seger cones, for instance, because some slags melt relatively like ice, with a very short viscous-range, while others melt relatively like tar, with a very long viscous-range. In one the difference between the softening- and the free-running temperature may be very small, as little as 100° F., while in another this difference may easily be 200° or 300°. The importance of this difference is so great in practice as to destroy completely the value of exhaustive investigations, even such as those of 0. Boudouard, published a few years ago.1 * Presented also at the Joint Meeting of the Institute with Section IIIa, Metallurgy and Mining, of the Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, New York, September, 1912. 1 It may not be amiss at this point to call attention to the excellent suggestion of Woolsey McA. Johnson, made several years ago, for determining the temperature at which different slags have the same practical fusibility. This suggestion

Oct 1, 1912

By W. F. Boericke

NOT the least interesting sights that New York has to offer the visiting mining engineers are the extensive tunnel operations that are being pushed in connection with the subway construction. While a "hard rock" man might feel at home on these jobs, the engineers driving the subway tunnels have necessarily had to encounter some new problems pe-culiar to the largest permanent mining camp in the country. To drive a heading 36 by 18 ft. in hard rock, with a station section to follow 52 by 27 ft. across-and to do it in the midst of a city's traffic-demands engineering skill of a high order. Not the least of the problems overcome by the engineers in charge was to provide adequate ventilation for the men at the face at all times, so that there would be no delay in the work. With a crew of 40 men (32 drill runners and helpers on the machines alone, working two shifts) a hold-up due to inability to get back promptly to the face after shooting would affect costs quickly. AIR VITIATED BY EXHAUST FUMES FROM MOTOR TRUCKS A complication not encountered by metal miners, but which the subway engineers had to meet, was pollution of the air in the tunnels by fumes from the exhaust of the motor trucks used to haul away the broken rock. As shown in the cut, motor trucks were constantly em-ployed to remove the heavy tonnage broken as the tun-nels went ahead, amounting, according to R. J. Van Wagner, chief engineer of the Del Balso Construction Co., to 48 cu. yd. per ft. of tunnel advance. As the length of the tunnel under his management was 900 ft., it was essential for the safety of the men that suffi-cient air be introduced to dilute the poisonous fumes so that no ill effects would be felt for the entire distance that the trucks had to travel. The presence of the ex-haust fumes was especially noticeable on foggy days.

Jan 2, 1928

By G. F. Loughlin

Nearly 55 years have elapsed since the U. S. Geological Survey was organized. During this period the mineral industries have grown from infancy or early childhood to well developed maturity, and some mining industries appear to be declining. Decline in mining is even more conspicuous in certain districts, or even states, than in any mining industry as a whole, and discoveries or developments of important new districts have been very few in recent years. Our reserves of most metals and nonmetals are adequate for many years of normal production, subject to changes in rate of exploitation that may be caused by foreign competition and by changes in technology and market conditions; but the declining production of many districts and the scarcity of important new discoveries to compensate for them is cause for some apprehension. It is likely that future production will depend to a considerable extent on deep exploration and on the thorough examination of places in and adjoining existing districts where significant outcrops are lacking and only apparently insignificant geologic features offer encouraging clues—more so than on the discovery of entirely new districts. Even the possible discovery of new districts, which have escaped the intensive search by the nontechnical prospector, must be dependent on geologic information. There is therefore no need for argument as to the value of geology to the mining industry; and the need of continuing to advance the science. The U. S. Geological Survey's past contributions to mining geology, as expressed in its official reports and other publications, are recognized by Ransome in his historical review of mining geology in the Lindgren volume.' These contributions have helped to form the basis of modern mining geology, which has grown rapidly in the last 25 years. This growth has witnessed the organization and maintenance of geologic staffs by mining companies in several districts, and their detailed work, together with the fact that nearly all of the larger mining districts have

Jan 1, 1935

Jan 1, 1924

Jan 1, 1924

By John A. Mathews

During the prosecution of the aircraft-production program in 1917 and 1918, the writer visited many plants engaged in the manufacture of motors, planes and parts, in carrying out his duties as chairman of the Committee on Aircraft-engine Forgings. On several occasions, when the question of expansion was discussed, it was noted that there was confusion in the use of the terms: the true coefficient of expansion, a physical constant, and distortion in hardening. One engineer, referring to a steel shown in the accompanying table, stated that he could not consider it for crankshafts because of its excessive coefficient of expansion, while another steel, also Iisted in the table, was said to be especially good because it had no coefficient of expansion, since it came out of the oil bath perfectly straight. Many years ago one of our employees designed a new oil furnace; when asked what became of the products of combustion, he replied: "There ain't any, we burn them all up." While the coefficient of expansion is not without its effect in volume changes in hardened steel, it is not a determining factor in the matter of distortion and going out of shape. Irregular heating, uneven furnace bottoms, and carelessness in withdrawing the part from the furnace, as well as the manner in which the part enters the quenching bath are of greater moment. Generally speaking, also, steels of relatively low hardening temperature will distort less than those requiring higher hardening heats. The coefficient of expansion must be considered in engineering design most frequently when different metals or alloys are used in the same construction. For example, the difference of expansion between a steel crankshaft and an aluminum crank case might be of real importance and a steel with no coefficient of expansion would be much less desirable than one with the normal coefficient. About 15 years ago, the writer made many determinations of the coefficient of expansion at low temperature ranges, usually between 20' and 100" C. Among the materials tested were: Pure forged electrolytic iron, 11.73 parts per million for l° C.; cast aluminum (99.93 per cent. AI.),

Jan 1, 1922

By John A. Mathews

During the prosecution of the aircraft-production program in 1917 and 1918, the writer visited many plants engaged in the manufacture of motors, planes and parts, in carrying out his duties as chairman of the Committee on Aircraft-engine Forgings. On several occasions, when the question of expansion was discussed, it was noted that there was confusion in the use of the terms: the true coefficient of expansion, a physical constant, and distortion in hardening. One engineer, referring to a steel shown in the accompanying table, stated that he could not consider it for crankshafts because of its excessive coefficient of expansion, while another steel, also Iisted in the table, was said to be especially good because it had no coefficient of expansion, since it came out of the oil bath perfectly straight. Many years ago one of our employees designed a new oil furnace; when asked what became of the products of combustion, he replied: "There ain't any, we burn them all up." While the coefficient of expansion is not without its effect in volume changes in hardened steel, it is not a determining factor in the matter of distortion and going out of shape. Irregular heating, uneven furnace bottoms, and carelessness in withdrawing the part from the furnace, as well as the manner in which the part enters the quenching bath are of greater moment. Generally speaking, also, steels of relatively low hardening temperature will distort less than those requiring higher hardening heats. The coefficient of expansion must be considered in engineering design most frequently when different metals or alloys are used in the same construction. For example, the difference of expansion between a steel crankshaft and an aluminum crank case might be of real importance and a steel with no coefficient of expansion would be much less desirable than one with the normal coefficient. About 15 years ago, the writer made many determinations of the coefficient of expansion at low temperature ranges, usually between 20' and 100" C. Among the materials tested were: Pure forged electrolytic iron, 11.73 parts per million for l° C.; cast aluminum (99.93 per cent. AI.),

Jan 1, 1922

By F. F. Colcord

THE electrolytic separation of silver and gold has been practiced by the refineries in the United States for a good many years; and probably because of frequent visiting between officials of plants and the consequent exchange of views, operations in the various silver and gold refineries are very similar. We find, for instance, they practically all use electrolytes of approximately the same composition, which, no doubt, is more the result of experience than of studies of electrolytes. At the new electrolytic parting plant of the U. S. S. Lead Refinery, Inc., East Chicago, Ind., considerable attention has been given to the, composition of electrolytes, especially to their conductivity and their effect on the character of the silver deposit. We are not aware that anything has been recently published on this subject and are, therefore, presenting such data as we have with the idea that, although it will not be wholly new, it may stimulate interest in the subject. EFFECT OF COPPER CONTENT ON CONDUCTIVITY The first work, was to determine the specific conductivity of silver nitrate and copper nitrate solution. Concentrated solutions of silver nitrate and copper nitrate were prepared by dissolving analyzed chemically-pure salts in distilled water, and determining the silver and copper in each. Definite amounts of the concentrated solutions were taken, mixed and diluted to a definite volume. The silver and the copper were determined in each of these solutions and the conductivity was, then determined. The plotted results are shown in Fig. 1 and 2. The effect of increasing quantities of silver and, copper is readily seen. A comparison of the two sets of curves shows conclusively the benefit of holding the copper content of the electrolyte above 50 g. per liter, as its

Jan 2, 1926

By ERIIL SCHROEDTER

THE death, on May 6, 1908, of Dr. Hermann Wedding, Privy Mining Councilor of the Kingdom of Prussia, and Professor of the Metallurgy of Iron and Steel at the Royal Mining Academy of Berlin, was a loss keenly felt by the whole metallurgical world. Not alone in his native land, but also in foreign countries did he enjoy an esteem of which the title of honorary membership in the American Institute of Mining Engineers, the United States Association of Charcoal Iron-Workers, and the (British) Iron and Steel Institute bears eloquent testimony. Hermann Wedding was born March 9, 1834, in Berlin. At the suggestion of Dr. C. J. B. Karsten, the veteran father of Prussian metallurgy and author of the first German text-book of the metallurgy of iron, lie turned his attention, after gradu¬ating from the gymnasium, to mining and metallurgy. In 1853, he began a practical course at the Malapane iron-works, in Upper Silesia. Subsequently, he studied at the Berlin Mining Academy, and received from the University in 1859 the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. A journey which be made to England, somewhat later, led to his undertaking a German translation, with revision and additions, of John Percy's classic treatise on the metallurgy of iron and steel, the publication of which, in successive installments, stretched through many years. In 1863, lie published, as a thesis in connection with his "Assessor's examination," an essay, entitled The Results of the Bessemer Process for the Production of Steel, and Its Prospects for the Rhenish and Westphalian Iron and Steel Industry, which revealed such ability and knowledge as to secure for him a call to the chair of metallurgy in the Berlin Mining Academy.

Jun 1, 1909

By E. M. Wise

WHEN man became dissatisfied with the mere utilization of physical force and began to use weapons, he made a definite stride forward. At first he used sticks, animal bones and stones, often rudely shaped to some particularly lethal form. These devices, while crude, were moderately effective. How- ever, some of the brighter men of the tribe found that certain particularly heavy "stones" were somewhat ductile and could be hammered into more effective weapons than those previously known. Later, probably through the misuse of one of these weapons to stir the campfire, it was found that heating softened and perhaps actually melted the material. The process of annealing had been discovered! Smelting the more easily reducible metals was in all probability one of those fortuitous accidents which was followed up by thoughtful researchers who ultimately developed the technique of mixing various ores to produce bronze and even some of the nickel content alloys. The resulting products were at first lumps of more or less ductile material which could be hammered to shape, and were thus incidentally hardened by this process. The hardening of metals by alloying and cold working remained for many centuries the only known methods for improving their properties.

Jan 1, 1931

By AIME AIME

IN accordance with the provisions of Art. XII, See. 3, of the By-laws of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, the Board of Directors hereby give notice of their intention to amend the By-laws as follows : Art. V, Sec. 2. Amend by substituting the word "senior" for ('first" before the words "Vice-president" in line two of the third paragraph of said section which relates to the calling of special meetings of the Board in the absence or disability of the President.

Jan 1, 1930

By J. P. BONARDI, William F. Boericke

BOULDER COUNTY, Colorado, ranked during the war years and until the end of 1918 as one of the foremost tungsten-producing districts of the world. In 1919 production fell off drastically, due to heavy importations of foreign ores from China, Burma and South America. So large were the imports that even after the enactment of a protective tariff in 1922 of 45c. per lb. on tungsten metal, equivalent to $7.14 per unit (201b.) of tungstic acid? (WO,), the stocks of metal in this country were extensive enough to supply the demands of industry, and prevent general resumption of mining by domestic producers. Even today there are only two producers in the Boulder district though at one time as many as twenty separate companies were in operation. About the same ratio holds for other tungsten-producing districts in the country, including California and Nevada. Total consumption of tungsten concentrate in terms of 60 per cent WO2 in the United States amounted to approximately 3790 tons in 1928, according to Frank L. Hess.' Of this amount, domestic mines contributed 1290 tons, and the rest, 2500 tons, was imported. Yet in 1917, with tungsten concentrate selling at $20 per unit, the Boulder district alone produced 2707 tons, indicating the effect of enhanced ore price upon production. It is believed by American tungsten miners that, given a sufficiently high tariff, all the demands of industry can be met by domestic production without placing a prohibitive burden on consumers. For instance, in steel manufacturing the percentage of tungsten entering into the manufacture is so small that, ?regardless of cost, it can constitute but a small fraction of the cost of steel to the buyer.

Jan 1, 1929

By Robert H. Richards

OF the several professions-the chemist, the civil engineer, the mining engineer, the mechanical engineer-the courses of instruction, as arranged at the scientific schools, differ considerably as to the amount of practical information which the student is able to gain. The analytical chemist has facility for a very thorough review of the processes which he will be called upon to perform. The student in civil engineering by his field practical learns the use of his tools and the art of taking field-notes. The mechanical engineering student is in the vicinity of machine-shops, which he can visit, and at which . he can work. The student in mining engineering has no such advantages. The mines are at a distance, and the railroad fare to get to them is oftentimes an insuperable difficulty. The aim of these laboratories is essentially to give to the student in mining and metallurgy a chance to study on a small scale the practical parts of his profession. We cannot, in a small laboratory, build a mine to timber, to work, and to survey; we cannot make artificial quicksands and other impediments to mining. In short, we cannot study exploration; but we can study the mechanical preparation and the subsequent smelting of ores. Before presenting the plan of these laboratories it may be interesting to indicate the progress of the idea from its beginning. During the summer of 1870 President Runkle visited the mines of Colorado, and while there, conceived the idea of making an expedition with the mining students to some of the Western mining regions. He talked over the scheme with many railroad and mining men, and everywhere received encouragement. In the summer of 1871 the Institute party visited the mines of Colorado, and spent six weeks in taking notes of them. President Runkle here conceived the idea of building up a mining and metallurgical laboratory ; and by the aid of Booth & Co. of San Francisco, a stamp-mill was obtained, with the Washoe silver-working apparatus. During the year

By Robert H. Richards

OF the several professions-the chemist, the civil engineer, the mining engineer, the mechanical engineer-the courses of instruction, as arranged at the scientific schools, differ considerably as to the amount of practical information which the student is able to gain. The analytical chemist has facility for a very thorough review of the processes which he will be called upon to perform. The student in civil engineering by his field practice learns the use of his tools and the art of taking field-notes. The mechanical engineering student is in the vicinity of machine-shops, which he can visit, and at which he can work. The student in mining engineering has no such advantages. The mines are at a distance, and the railroad fare to get to them is oftentimes an insuperable difficulty. The aim of these laboratories is essentially to give to the student in mining and metallurgy a chance to study on a small scale the practical parts of his profession. We cannot, in a small laboratory, build a mine to timber, to work, and to survey; we cannot make artificial quicksands and other impediments to mining. In short, we cannot study exploration; but we can study the mechanical preparation and the subsequent smelting of ores. Before presenting the plan of these laboratories it may be interesting to indicate the progress of the idea from its beginning. During the summer of 1870 President Runkle visited the mines of Colorado, and while there, conceived the idea of making an expedition with the mining students to some of the Western mining regions. He talked over the scheme with many railroad and mining men, and everywhere received encouragement. In the summer of 1871 the Institute party visited the mines of Colorado, and spent six weeks in taking notes of them. President Runkle here conceived the idea of building up a mining and metallurgical laboratory ; and by the aid of Booth & Co. of San Francisco, a stamp-mill was obtained, with the Washoe silver-working apparatus. During the year

Jan 1, 1873

RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS AT ITS MEETING ON APRIL 17, 1936 Recognizing the fact that the problems of the committee named by the Board to prepare the " official ticket" for officers and Directors of the Institute are various and difficult; and desiring to assist this committee by setting forth some of the principles that should guide the committee and some of the qualifications that should be required of candidates, the following instructions are formulated and the Secretary is directed to publish them in MINING AND METALLURGY concurrently with the publication of the names of each newly appointed Nominating Committee and to send a copy to each member of the Committee. NOMINATIONS TO BE MADE Each year the Nominating Committee is to select "official" candidates for eight places, as follows: (1) President and Director (2) Vice-President and Director (3) Vice-President and Director (4) Director (5) Director (6) Director (7) Director (8) Director GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION The Bylaws provide that "the Nominating Committee shall, so far as practicable, distribute representation on the Board geographically." Pursuant to this provision, the United States, Canada and Mexico have been divided into fifteen districts, as shown on the official map.* Districts 1, 5, 6, 10, 11, 12,13,14, and 15 are assigned one Directorship each; District 2, three Directorships; District 3, eight Directorships; District 4, two Directorships; and Districts 7, 8, and 9, two Directorships between them. It will be the duty of the Nominating Committee to make selections that will give effect to this allocation of Directorships. There is nothing to prevent a Director being named to succeed himself. Attention is called to the: fact that many Institute members now resident in New York formerly lived in the West, South, or North and still have intimate business connections that compel them to visit various parts of the country periodically. Such men are particularly valuable as Directors and their nomination and election tends to minimize the objection that a large number of Directors reside in New York.

Jan 1, 1940

By John A. Mathews

D R. CHARLES W. ELIOT, the great educator and philosopher-he of the five-foot book shelf-recently gave expression to a thought I had long been cherishing as a private opinion, when he said: "It is obvious that standardization has become a dangerous adversary of progress in both education and industry." This idea must have been more widespread than either of us knew, for some five years ago a writer of verse for one of the comic papers dealt with it at great length. I will quote only a few of his stanzas to illustrate his understanding of "A Standardized Existence" : A visitor at large, I stand Beneath a standard sky- Where everything is standardized To please the standard eye. Each tree is of a standard height, Each building is the same; Each man is uniform in height, And has a standard name. Above there is a standard star Beside a standard cloud, And a standard weather here prevails To please a standard crowd. With standard joy, and standard gain, The standard people live; And if there is one bit of pain T?is such as standards give.

Jan 1, 1926

By H. M. Roche

MAGNETITE mining and milling in the Eastern States was sharply curtailed in 1938, production showing a decrease of 36 per cent from 1936 and 57 per cent from 1937. Six mines, one in Pennsylvania, two in New York, and three in New Jersey were in operation, either part or full time, during the year. In recent years ten Eastern magnetite mines have been more or less active but since the World War the market for Eastern ores- has been spotty. The scrapping of Eastern merchant pig iron furnaces, imports of cheaply mined duty-free foreign ore, and high freight cost have been contributing factors.

Jan 1, 1939

By F. J. Cuddeback

For low-head pumping of small quantities of water, the water jet, or hydraulic educter, has been used to advantage by Eagle-Picher Mining and Smelting Co. in the Tri-State district. Water-jet pumps are used for draining sumps and pockets up to 15 ft. in depth. They have been used very successfully when only moderate amounts of water are encountered in taking up bottom. A small, easily handled unit is desirable in this work, especially while opening and deepening a new stope. Small air pumps are convenient but can be used only on the day shift, when air is available. Obviously, a jet pump of smaller capacity but operating 24 hr. prevents lost time at the start of each shift. No tests have been made on their power efficiency, but admittedly it is low. However, for certain kinds of work this is offset by their handiness, low initial cost, low upkeep, and reliability. They will handle slime and sand without ill effect, and will continue to pump indefinitely on air. This foolproof 24-hr. performance has led to their continued use at some places even after electric pumps with better power efficiency could have been installed. The success of jet pumps depends largely upon a cheap source of high-pressure water. Owing to mine depths in the Tri-State district, pump pressures range from 100 to 150 Ib. per sq. in. In many mines it is common practice to handle the normal inflow water with triplex pumps ranging in size from 3 to 8 in. The pumps operate 24 hr. per day, and, in order to handle emergency conditions, are speeded slightly faster than necessary to pump the normal inflow. The sump level is governed by controlling the by-pass water with a butterfly valve and float. This method is somewhat wasteful of power, but permits the pumps to operate with a minimum of attention. Such an installation is visited once a day to check lubrication. Hence, if some of this water, normally by-passed to the main sump, were used to operate a jet pump, the power cost could be considered low regardless of efficiency. Figs. I and 2 show two water jets that have done satisfactory work. The one in Fig. 2, made up entirely of pipe fittings, may be of interest partially because of its novelty, but does better work than its appearance indicates. The pipe fittings for this jet as shown cost $2.20. Some improvement in its design may be made by cutting out the 135 by 1¼-in. reducer to a smoother taper as shown by dotted lines. A 3-in. suction pipe is sometimes used in order that the discharge may be as straight as possible. A 2-in. discharge line has been used frequently, but 3-in. pipe is used where several hundred feet of discharge is required.

Jan 1, 1946

By Ulrich H. Roesler

RECENTLY, C. Zener1 published a new thermo-dynamic treatment of the a/y transformation in iron alloys. His interpretation differs from the previous theories2-0 ainly through the separation of the free energy difference, Ga—G, into two additive

Jan 1, 1957