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By Charles D. Litton

Introduction The successful performance of a mine-wide fire detection system depends upon its ability to detect the presence of a fire rapidly and reliably. It should be sufficiently rapid so that there remains enough time to either safely evacuate a mine or successfully extinguish and control the fire or both. It should be reliable so that false alarms are minimized without sacrificing sensitivity or time response. Systems should also be durable enough to withstand the mine environment over long periods of time while maintaining a high degree of re1iability. Maintenance and calibration of the system should be simp1 e and not require the expenditure of excessive time and manpower to keep it operational. Sensitivity, reliability, and durability of mine fire sensors and their electronic support systems have been the subject of significant Bureau research within recent years. The bulk of this type of information, along with the reports from which the remainder of this paper is derived, can be found in the Bibliography. It suffices to say that there exist commercially available systems for use in mines. This paper addresses a strategy for the use of such sensors and systems. Many factors influence the design of a mine-wide fire detection system, such as the potential sources and modes of ignition, the types of combustibles involved and the quantities avai1able for fire growth and flame spread. Mine air ventilation influences the growth and spread of a fire and also serves to transport the products-of-combustion to other areas of a mine remote from the fire. Fire sensor alarm thresholds place limits on the sizes of fires that can be detected. The time to respond to a detected fire, either in terms of evacuation or control and extinguishment, place additional time constraints on the design of fire detection systems. These factors interact with each other, often in complex ways, and it is the definition and understanding of these factors and their interactions that hold the key to the design of adequate and re1iable fire detection systems. Our level of understanding of the problem has increased dramatically within recent years and it is the intent of this paper to discuss the progress that has been made and how the information can best be used to improve the level of fire detection in underground mines.

Jan 1, 1986

By R. C. Emmett

Gravity sedimentation is one of the most widely used unit operations in mineral processing and hydrometallurgy. Properly selected and operated sedimentation equipment can provide probably the most economical means of concentrating solids or clarifying solutions. Because of the variety of different approaches possible, including the use of modern flocculants, it is easy to overlook the optimum approach in selecting equipment. The different types of sedimentation systems that can be used in the minerals field and the sizing methods that are currently employed will be discussed here. Sedimentation applications usually fall into two areas, clarification or thickening. While the two operations are basically similar, the difference in emphasis (a well-clarified overflow as opposed to a highly concentrated underflow) results in significant differences in testing, equipment design, and operation. Clarifiers may be merely simple settling vessels with no special features, other than ample volume to provide the detention time needed for suspended solids to settle out of the feed slurry. Or, they can be designed to employ elaborate solids-contact techniques utilizing coagulants or flocculants to achieve more rapid clarification through the growth of particle agglomerates. Thickeners also are available in a wide variety of designs, with the main differences concentrated in the design of the raking mechanism. Thickeners operating in series (continuous countercurrent decantation or CCD) are used to recover valuable solution or purify the insoluble solids. Tray thickeners are used for recovering fine particulate solids such as alumina seed, but in other applications have been supplanted largely by unit thickeners or inclined plate units. Thickeners and clarifiers sometimes are used for storage of either solids or overflow liquor, or employed as precipitating reactors, such as in desilication applications. The use of flocculants and coagulants is much more common in modern processing plants, primarily due to the reduction in capital costs rendered possible through the use of these reagents. The terms flocculant and coagulant are often used interchangeably; generally, it is understood that flocculants refer to organic, high molecular weight synthetic or natural polymers which are useful in flocculating most suspended solids, but generally are ineffective on colloidal suspensions. Coagulants refer to chemicals such as those commonly used in water treatment, alum, ferric salts, lime, etc., which are usually far more effective on colloidal solids but cannot achieve the degree of agglomeration that is possible with the polymers. In some cases, both coagulants and flocculants are used in order to achieve optimum results.

Jan 1, 1986

By Malcolm Ross

Of the six forms of asbestos, only three have been used to any significant extent in commerce. These are chrysotile, crocidolite, and amosite. Between 1870 and 1980, approximately 100 million tonnes of asbestos was mined worldwide, of which more than 90 million tonnes was the chrysotile variety, about 2.7 million tonnes the crocidolite variety, and about 2.2 million tonnes the amosite variety. The three principal diseases related to asbestos exposure are (1) lung cancer, (2) cancer of the pleural and peritoneal membranes (mesothelioma), and (3) asbestosis, a condition in which the lung tissue becomes fibrous and thus loses its ability to function. These diseases, however, are not equally prevalent in the various groups of asbestos workers that have been studied: the amount and type of disease depend on the duration of exposure, the intensity of exposure, and particularly, the type or types of asbestos to which the individual has been exposed. Lung cancer is caused by exposure to chrysotile, amosite, and crocidolite asbestos; however, increased risk of this disease is usually found only in those who also smoke. Asbestosis is caused by prolonged exposure to all forms of asbestos, whereas mesothelioma is principally caused by exposure to crocidolite asbestos. There is good evidence that chrysotile asbestos does not cause any significant amount of mesothelioma mortality, even after very heavy exposure. The common nonasbestiform amphibole minerals, cummingtonite, grunerite, tremolite, anthophyllite, and actinolite, which are often defined as "asbestos" for regulatory purposes, have not been shown to cause disease in miners. Chrysotile asbestos, which accounts for about 95 percent of the asbestos used in the United States, has been shown by extensive Canadian studies to be safe when exposures do not exceed 1 fiber per cm3 for the working lifetime. Chrysotile dust levels found in buildings rarely exceed 0.001 fibers per cm3. Such dust concentrations will have no measurable health effect on the building occupants. Present and future controls of minerals defined as "asbestos" and removal of asbestos from buildings and homes may cost many billions of dollars. Much of this expense is unnecessary and even counterproductive. Asbestos abatement could in fact produce a health risk to those exposed to dusts during and after removal operations overly restrictive controls could force the use of poor or dangerous substitutes, and could greatly affect the hard-rock mining industry.

Jan 1, 1987

By S. K. Kawatra, H. Haselhuhn

"In many mineral processing applications it is necessary to know the isoelectric points of the various minerals in the ore to properly perform flotation and other mineral separations. However, current zeta potential analysis technology used to determine the isoelectric point of a particle suspension cannot deliver the isoelectric point of each individual mineral, just an average of the mineral system. Traditionally, individual isoelectric points have been gathered by testing pure, synthetic minerals. These values can vary widely depending on the mineral synthesis procedure and the water quality used during the isoelectric point analysis. A more robust approach for determining the actual isoelectric point of a particular mineral in a mixture of minerals is needed. This paper details a method for determining the isoelectric point of an iron oxide mineral in a siliceous iron ore. The method uses a laser scattering particle size analyzer and a pH electrode to determine the pH at which the liberated mineral particles begin to flocculate as pH is decreased. The pH at which the average particle size rises dramatically is the isoelectric point of the mineral with the highest isoelectric point in the ore. This measurement technique was used on natural hematite, goethite and siderite ores as well as a synthetic mixture of pure silica and pure hematite. The results for synthetic hematite mixtures were comparable to literature values.IntroductionRecently there has been an increased interest in the processing of low-grade iron ores (Bolen, 2014; Carlson and Kawatra, 2008, 2011, 2013; Halt et al., 2014; Halt and Kawatra, 2014; Haselhuhn 2012, 2013; Haselhuhn et al., 2012a, 2012b; Kawatra and Halt, 2011; Liu et al., 2014; Manouchehri, 2014; Sandvik and Larsen, 2014; Semberg et al., 2014). The zeta potential of iron ore minerals is a very important and often overlooked aspect of iron ore mineral processing. Zeta potential is the charge at the shear plane of a surface in an aqueous environment (Carlson and Kawatra, 2013). Many ores consist of a variety of minerals differing in zeta potential. This property of a particle surface in water is responsible for either keeping the particles dispersed from each other or flocculated to each other. This is important during many operations such as flotation, desliming and thickening. Zeta potential is primarily a function of the pH of the water and the mineralogy of the particles, though certain ions within the water can also have a significant impact (Haselhuhn, 2012). Consider the following situation: silica (SiO2) particles and hematite (Fe2O3) particles are suspended in an aqueous solution. These two types of minerals have drastically different zeta potentials throughout the pH spectrum (Esumi et al., 1988). In alkaline conditions, both types of particles exhibit negative zeta potentials and will tend to disperse from each other. In acidic conditions (between pH of 3 and 6), silica has a negative zeta potential while hematite has a positive zeta potential, so these surfaces will tend to be attractive to each other and the particles will flocculate and settle. This phenomenon is visually described in Fig. 1. The pH at which the two minerals begin to attract to each other, or destabilize, is near hematite’s isoelectric point. The isoelectric point is defined as the pH at which the surface has a net zero zeta potential (Carlson and Kawatra, 2013)."

Jan 1, 2015

By Peter J. Szabo

Introduction There has been much said recently about the sophistication of Japanese management in turning out reliable, inexpensive products, such as cars and steel. Techniques include consensus management and quality control circles. These have been touted as prime reasons for inexpensive Japanese products. An often neglected, but major factor in the equation of cheap export goods is the role played by Japanese trading companies. These venerable institutions are a vital factor in Japan's overall strategy of keeping the price of raw materials at the absolute lowest levels. This is critical to the country's economy since the nation must import more than 85% of all its coal. A country that is so desperate for imported raw materials would appear, at first glance, to be at the mercy of its suppliers. In Japan's case, however, the opposite is true. With the exception of brief' windows in 1974-75 and 1980-81, Japan has been in the driver's seat in negotiating contract terms. Due to its dominant role in world coal trade, Japan's situation can be described as a de facto monopsony. By definition, a monopsony is a market situation where the product, in this case coal, is offered by many sellers, but is sought by one buyer. This has been due to the role of Japanese trading companies in dealing with suppliers. Table I depicts trading companies by size in 1982. Mitsubishi and Mitsui are overshadowing in terms of size. The others, though less significant, play a vital role in orchestrating the marketplace. Three critical building blocks on which the strategy of the trading companies are based include intelligence networks, exceptional training of company traders, and shrewd contract negotiation practices. Intelligence Networks All success is derived from these three key components. Of the three blocks, intelligence gathering is the most important. With all the sophistication of the Central Intelligence Agency, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Interpol, and the Surete', the Japanese trading company's method is every bit as competent and far more gentlemanly. Friendly competition is the key to survival. Although one Japanese trading company appears to be in ardent competition with its rival Japanese trading companies, when studied closely, a totally different picture emerges. The end user nominates certain trading companies as market channels and informally guarantees they will receive compensation regardless of which company wins a specific order. With this concept in mind, the pressure is off. The trading company can aim at getting the best price for the end user. Therefore, bargain, beat, and share information. Do whatever is necessary, but get the lowest price for the end user. Even with the game so gentlemanly, no victory could be assured without an adequate intelligence network. Proper intelligence is only as good as the sources drawn from. But how is one assured of getting the right information? The answer is verification. Verification is comprised of numerous independent sources each cross checked at a central processing unit in Tokyo. Each major Japanese trading company receives input, not only from its own trader, but from other trading companies as well. In addition to their own compilation, trading companies rely on the The Coal Manual, published annually in Tokyo by TEX. This manual covers every major coal producing country. Mines are located and seams identified, mining recovery, equipment lists, washing yield, railway distances

Jan 1, 1985

By W. M. Kidd, P. J. Duport

INTRODUCTION The enquiry of the Royal Commission on Health and Safety of Workers in Mines of 1976, known as the Ham Commission after its chairman, Dr. J. Ham , now president of the University of Toronto, was one of the activities surrounding the upturn in the fortunes of the Canadian uranium industry and its markets in the mid-seventies. Although the regulation and licensing of Canada's ten major mine/mill facilities employing six thousand or more uranium mines is a federal concern under the Atomic Energy Control Act, this Commission, which paid particular attention to health and safety in uranium mines, was appointed by the Province of Ontario. Further provincial enquiries in British Columbia, Saskatchewan and Newfoundland have been aimed at quantifying, reducing or eliminating the environmental and health impact of uranium production. This work has created a mosaic of provincial regulation in what is essentially a field of federal jurisdiction. Various organizations of the federal government related to its regulatory function in the uranium industry are outlined in Figure 1 showing the matrices of regulatory, advisory and research activities associated with the exploitation of Canadian uranium resources. A more detailed examination [ ] of the governmental (federal and provincial) activities, commissions, etc., in the Canadian uranium industry indicates a definite parallelism of effort, if not of scale between the two levels of government in the execution of their roles in occupational and environmental health and safety and is presented here to explain the complex stage onto which the Canadian Institute for Radiation Safety has just entered. The development of the Institute and its precursors together with current and planned research activities are described. BACKGROUND Traditionally and constitutionally, natural resource exploitation and its regulation is under provincial jurisdiction; however, the uranium industry has been under federal control since the Second World War when security measures necessitated the creation of the Atomic Energy Control Board (AECB). Health and safety aspects, in terms of inspection, compliance and environmental monitoring are performed on behalf of the AECB by provincial labour inspectors (Saskatchewan and Ontario) and Ministries of Environment. Non-radiation health and safety matters are also enforced under the federal Canada Labour Code by provincial inspectors. In support of licensing and standard-setting functions, major research programs have been initiated and expanded at both the AECB and the Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology (CANMET), formerly the Mines Branch of the Federal Department of Energy, Mines and Resources). CANMET established a Mining Research Laboratory at Elliot Lake, Ontario in 1965 to conduct research and development aimed at improving production capability, providing information on the security of uranium supply and investigating the hazards of mining and their implications for the health and safety of the miners. The provincial route in assessing the costs and benefits of uranium production has attempted to be far more conclusive in nature. While some on-going studies are funded, periodic inquiries by Royal Commission have become the accepted practice. Six such inquiries have been conducted in four provinces and widely differing policies have resulted from their findings and recommendations. For example, while the government of British Columbia in the Fall of 1980 declared a seven-year moratorium on(2) uranium mining and exploration in the province, the province of Ontario's crown utility "Ontario Hydro" financed the rehabilitation of a mine/mill complex at Elliot Lake. The latter instance is not surprising considering that the final report of Ontario's "Royal Commission on Electric Power Planning",(3) concluded that nuclear energy has a continuing role to play in the expansion of Ontario Hydro.

Jan 1, 1981

By Wallace W. Roepke, Richard C. Olson

To adequately attack the longwall dust problem, the US Bureau of Mines funded a contract to define dust sources on a longwall mine face area. The study examined the shearer during sumping, cutting, and tramming, the conveyor, and the roof supports. Tests showed the shearer to be the major dust source. Introduction Long-term illnesses place a heavy burden on miners, the mining industry, and taxpayers. Black lung payments to more than 400,000 miners and their survivors exceeded $9 billion between 1970 and 1980. They are continuing at a rate of $1 billion per year. Recent MSHA data indicate more than 50% of the longwall faces are still out of compliance with the 2 mg/m3 (0.00007 oz per cu ft) respirable dust regulation. Allowable dust limits are often further reduced owing to the presence of silica dust. This substantially increases the problem's severity. Research in the 1970s showed that by modifying the mining method through changing drum-type mining machines from high rpm shallow cutting to slow rpm deep cutting, both specific dust and energy could be reduced (Black et al., 1978; Ludlow and Wilson, 1982; Roepke, Lindroth, and Myren, 1976). The coal mining industry is using more longwall equipment to economically obtain high productivity. This high production rate, however, makes it difficult for longwalls to meet the legal dust standard. Research is showing how both these concerns may be addressed at the mining face. Results reported here explain the relationship of various major elements of the longwall system to dust generation on the longwall face. This paper is based on work completed by Foster-Miller Associates Inc. Objectives were to differentiate dust sources on the longwall face and to quantify dust levels for various elements of the shearer drum. The work was accomplished in two phases. Jonathon Ludlow, project engineer for FMA, developed and performed the necessary testing (Ludlow and Marshall, 1983). Bradley, Hadden, and Weston (1983) have done evaluations on British coal mines that produced similar results to those reported here. They found causative rela¬tionships between haulage speed, production, depth cut, drum speed, and dust generation. They also found that roof support movement increased the dustiness, whereas this work indicated that support movement had only a minor effect on total dust exposure. Both of these results are valid when the variation of mining conditions is analyzed. British mines are deeper than US mines. Therefore, roof rocks and coal are more fragmented than in the shallower US mines. Other reasons for the dust differences include the weaker shales found in Britain and the variation of roof support equipment designs between the UK and the US. Four mines in this report had rock roofs and, thus, would be less dusty. The fifth longwall mine had a coal roof, but the large cross-sectional area and high air velocity minimized dust exposure. Mines and Equipment Five underground longwall mine sites were tested (Fig. 1). All were using double-ended ranging-drum shearers (derds) with some variations in equipment. The mines and equipment details are shown in Table 1. No modification of mining equipment or operating cycles was made during the first phase of testing. The mining process observed followed the normal mine operating procedures. Three GCA RAM-1 respirable dust monitors and two vortex anemometers with cycle notations on portable tape recorders were used in each face area. The start and end of each cycle segment were recorded. Dust monitors record the dust levels once every 10 seconds, thus providing a relatively continuous real time indication of change in

Jan 8, 1984

By Leslie E. Apodaca

INTRODTUCTION The use of spiral concentrators for processing fine coal particles is an old idea that has recently gained acceptance in the 11.S. coal industry. It was not onti1 the Australian Minerals Industry developed a spiral concentrator specifically for separating coal from ash in the latter 1970's and early 1980's that spiral concentrators were seriously considered as viable equipment for processing fine coal. The Wright Coal Spiral was introduced in 1980, the Mineral Deposits Limited Mark 10 Coal Spiral was introduced in 1982, and the Vickers Wyong Coal Spiral was introduced in the latter part of 1984. Each spiral design was different and utilized constant profile troughs, constant pitch troughs, compound profile troughs, and various splitter arrangements. Mineral Deposits Limited has combined the best features of the compound profile trough and constant pitch trough with critically-placed splitters to develop the MDL LD4 spiral concentrator which is a truly efficient coal washing spiral. This spiral concentrator was introduced into the U.S. Coal Industry in 1987. Recently, Mineral Engineering Technology of the United Kingdom and Multotec of South Africa have introduced their own coal spiral designs. Spiral concentrators were first installed in fine coal processing circuits in the Australian, South African, and Canadian Coal Industries in the early 1980's and in the U.S. Coal Industry in 1985. SPIRAL CONCENTRATOR SEPARATION PROCESS The separation process that occurs within the spiral concentrator trough is very complex, as it is a combination of three gravity separation processes. When the coal slurry first enters the spiral trough, each coal and ash particle and the water is subjected to centrifugal forces. These forces cause the water, light coal particles, fine heavy ash particles, and medium middlings particles to the outer vertical portion of the spiral trough. The coarse ash particles and the coarse middling particles remain on the inside of the spiral trough. The center or transitional area of the trough contains a mixture of middlings particles and near-gravity material that is present in the slurry, as shown in Figure 1. At the same time the coal and ash particles are suhjected to centrifugal forces, the trough design (both profile and pitch) causes the particles to be subjected to flowing film and stratified bed separations. The combination of these three separations, whose efficiency is dictated by the spiral troogh design, will effect the separation of the lighter coal particles from the heavier ash and middlings particles. As the slurry flows down the spiral, the profile and pitch design of the trough will counteract the centrifugal forces on the fine, heavy ash particles and fine middlings particles and cause them to migrate from the vertical portion of the trough to the center or inner portion of the trough. At the same time, any heavy particles trapped in the transitional area of the trough will be forced to migrate to the inner edge of the trough and any coal particles will be forced to migrate to the outer edge of the trough. SPIRAL SPLI'TTEP ARRANGEMENT The critical placement of splitters along the inner edge of the trough for removal of the heavy ash particles as the slurry flows down the trough further enhances the separation of the coal particles. At the bottom of the spiral trough are product splitters arranged to make a final separation of the slurry stream into clean coal, middlings, and refuse products.

Jan 1, 1988

By D. M. Range

Exxon is reclaiming an 80-hm2 (200¬acre) Wyoming uranium tailings basin in accordance with US Nuclear Regula¬tory Commission (NRC) requirements. The reclamation plan is designed to control the tailings and their radioactive emissions for at least 1000 years. Rigorous modeling and analyses of potential erosion by wind and water were used in planning. The use of riprap was minimized and the need for long¬term reclamation maintenance was eliminated. The resulting design is simi¬lar to regions stable from erosion cre¬ated by nature. The concepts used in the design and implementation have wider reclamation application. Highland history Exxon operated the Highland uranium operations from 1972 until mid-1984. Open pit and underground operations mined the roll front, sandstone ore body. The 2.5 kt/d (3000 stpd) mill employed conventional crushing, grinding, sulfu¬ric acid leach, CCD, SX, precipitation, and drying circuits. The mill produced 10 Mt (11 million st) of tailings. An¬other operator began commercial scale in situ leach operations in 1988. The tailings basin was constructed by deposition of mill tailings in a natural ravine dammed with a 30-m (100-ft) high by 1050-m (3400-ft) long clay core earthen dam built entirely downstream of tailings. Figure 1 shows the layout of the tail¬ings basin in 1984. Tailings were de¬posited along the dam face on the east side of the basin as well as in the west end and along the south edge until the early 1980s. This left a deep water pond in the middle of the basin. The deep pond was largely filled with tailings during the last four years of mill opera¬tions by the construction of two tailings causeways and the operation of a float¬ing tailings line. The pond water volume was mini¬mized by recycling tailings water to the mill and by operating a 32-L/s (500¬gpm) evaporation enhancement spray system during the last few years of mill operations. Regulatory requirements Several conceptual tailings basin rec¬lamation plans were prepared during the mine life. In September 1984, Exxon began preparation of a detailed plan in response to an NRC request. Water, Waste and Land Inc. (WWL) of Fort Collins, CO was selected to help pre¬pare the plan that was submitted to the NRC in December 1984. The design had to meet the require¬ments found in NRC regulations (NRC, 1985). These were based on regulations prepared by the Environmental Protec¬tion Agency (EPA, 1983) at the man¬date of federal law (UMTRA, 1978). The NRC regulations contain strict primary standards and a somewhat more flexible set of secondary standards. The primary standards include requiring that: • radiation from tailings be reduced to background levels; • radon gas emitted by the tailings be reduced to 20 pCi/m2/s from the surface of the reclaimed tailings pile; • tailings not be dispersed into the environment; and • these conditions endure without routine maintenance for at least 200 years and for 1000 years to the extent reasonably attainable. The lengthy time requirements pre¬sented a large engineering challenge. Radon is a radioactive, chemically inert gas with a 3.8 day half-life. It is released from uranium tailings by the radioactive decay of radium, which, in turn, is a radioactive decay product of uranium. Radon emissions from ura¬nium tailings can be controlled with an earthen cover thick enough that the radon gas decays to its solid, short-lived radio¬active daughters before the radon dif¬fuses through the cover material into the air.

Jan 1, 1989

By Arthur F. Eidson

INTRODUCTION If a uranium mill worker is involved in an accident, analysis of excreta for uranium content and[in vivo] counting methods are used to estimate the extent of the possible exposure and to predict the pattern of uranium distribution among tissues (Spitz, [et al]., 1980). Interpretations of urinary excretion data are based on studies of human exposures to single uranium compounds including U02, U308, U03, UF4, U02F2 and UF6 (Alexander, 1974). Refined uranium ore (yellowcake) is a variable mixture of U03-NH3-H20 adducts (ammonium diuranate, ADU) and their thermal conversion product, U308. The variability in composition of yellowcake (Kalkwarf, 1979; Eidson and Mewhinney, 1980; Dennis, Blauer and Kent, 1981) complicates the interpretation of bioassay data from individuals that might have inhaled any single yellowcake material. A test system would be useful to estimate the dissolution behavior of a particular yellowcake aerosol inhaled by a worker and aid in the interpretation of bioassay data collected before and after an accident. A series of experiments was conducted for this purpose. The objectives of these studies were to: 1) develop specific criteria for comparing [in vitro] dissolution systems and 2) use the criteria to evaluate solvents, methods and experimental temperature and pH conditions used in previous studies. Dissolution experiments were conducted using different combinations of solvents, conditions and methods with a common yellowcake sample. Because little information is available from human yellowcake inhalation exposures to evaluate the [in vitro] results, criteria for evaluation of different tests were derived from a model of yellowcake dissolution in lung constructed from a number of cases in which humans were exposed to single uranium compounds known to be in yellowcake (Mercer, 1975). MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials The powder used in the tests was taken from one lot of yellowcake obtained from a commercial uranium mill. The same powder was previously designated as Mill D in Eidson and Mewhinney, 1980 and Mill 2 in Kalkwarf, 1979. The ammonium diuranate content was measured by infrared absorption to be 25% ± 1% (Eidson and Mewhinney, 1980). Solvents The compositions of the two biological fluid simulants used are compared in Table 1. Simulated lung fluid (SLF) (Kalkwarf, 1979; Dennis, Blauer and Kent, 1981) was chosen to simulate the composition [ ] of lung fluid as closely as practical (Moss, 1979). Simulated blood serum ultrafiltrate (SUF) (Eidson and Mewhinney, 1980) was chosen because of previous successful efforts to model human urinary excretion of inhaled plutonium aerosols (Kanapilly Raabe and Boyd, 1974) and the dissolution rate of 241Am02 in Beagle dogs (Mewhinney and Griffith, 1981). Major differences are that simulated lung fluid contains Mg2+ and a higher Ca2+ concentration than SUF and that SUF contains ammonium ion. Both solvents include protein substitutes; acetate is used in SLF, while amino acids are used in SUF. Both solvents include phosphate but the chelating agent diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) is included in SUF to prevent possible formation of insoluble uranyl phosphate precipitates that would result in an underestimation of solubility. In addition to the above solvents, modified solvent compositions were prepared to investigate the role of specific salts in yellowcake dissolution studies. Solutions of SUF (Table 1) were prepared without DTPA (SUF-DTPA) and without amino acids (SUF-amino acids). No solution excluded both DTPA and amino acids. The SLF solutions were prepared with DTPA (SLF + DTPA) and without phosphate

Jan 1, 1981

By J. L. Chakravatti

INTRODUCTION Mining of uranium does not differ, in many respects, from the mining of other metals; the ore must be drilled, blasted and transported in an underground or surface mine. Underground mining proceeds by the continuous development and advancement of a network of passages and rooms or stopes from which ore is excavated. As in most mines, rock conditions and ore grades in uranium deposits vary from area to area and between different mines. For mineral benefications of this ore in the mills, use is made of various chemicals, often with toxic or hazardous properties.1 As well as the need to control the more conventional hazards associated with any mining and milling operation, special care needs to be exercised in the mining and milling of uranium because of the radioactive nature of the ore. This requires that we examine closely the radiation hazard areas encountered in the mining and milling of uranium, with the broad overview of some of the basic facts in the radiation hazard control programme. To place the hazard in its proper perspective, we require recognition, evaluation and control of those factors arising in and from the workplace which may cause sickness, impaired health and affect the well being among workers or citizens of the community. The radiation environment in uranium mine is complex and variable. Although uranium ore is only mildly radioactive, it naturally contains a complex mixture of radioactive isotopes. Workers are exposed to external gamma radiation, to some beta radiation and to airborne radon, radon daughters and ore dust. All of these types of exposures warrant considerations in formulating control procedures but, in general, radon daughters are known to present the dominant risk. The basis of dose limitation in radiological protection is risk limitation. Long-term epidemiologic studies of United States uranium miners and that of miners in Czechoslovakia indicate that the incidence of lung cancer can be accounted for by a linear relationship with exposure to radon decay products.2 On the basis of this proportional exposure-risk relationship, a risk coefficient for lung cancer in the range of 1-5.10-4 WLM-1 during the total lifetime, has been estimated by UNSCEAR3 and other researchers. It should be noted that this risk coefficient includes the excess lung cancer risk from external gamma radiation in mines and from other carcinogenic chemical effects, if any, to which the miners are normally exposed during their underground work. It also takes into regard the possible synergistic influences. This paper reviews the occurrence of radiation and its control factors and the development of engineering design features for the environmental control at Denison Mine. NATURAL URANIUM SERIES Uranium is the most common element in the Earth's crust. It is widely distributed in nature in all rocks and is readily measurable in the sea. Hence, radon gas is universally produced in every part of the globe. Mining is patently confined to ores containing more than half a kilogram, or so, per tonne of uranium unless it is combined with other marketable metals. Uranium-238 is the first element in the uranium series. In all, there are 13 radioactive decay products of 238U (Fig. 1), ending up as a stable isotope of Lead-206. The whole basis of the radiological hazards associated with the mining and milling of uranium is dependent on the behaviour of these isotopes during each phase of the process.

Jan 1, 1981

By Joseph T. Duncan, Syd Peng, Larry G. Stolarczyk

The mining business has numerous risks: equipment availability, labor disruptions, foreign exchange rate, etc., but one of the more important risks is assessing the geology. Improving the “intelligence” of geology can and will have significant positive effect on reducing mining risk and thus enhancing operational and financial performance. The use of the advanced Radio Imaging Method (RIM-IV) on coal seams and ore bodies can create useful two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) high-resolution images that provide mining engineers with additional intelligence to better plan and improve operations. Improved operational performance will reduce costs and enable mining companies to meet market and financial commitments. For the past decade the underground coal mining industry has been moving toward “super panels” in long-wall mining, and “super sections” for room-and-pillar mining. These mining conventions employ wider faces, longer gate roads, greater room-and-pillar density, and an increased scale in the amount and complexity of mining equipment. An obvious economy of scale exists: amortization of setup investments over greater volume of coal enables mine management to reduce fixed cost per ton. Restricted by equipment considerations, face widths have currently reached about 1,100 ft. Wider longwall panels are planned, with 1,400-ft widths, but this requires an incremental step in hardware that the original equipment manufacturers will soon bring to market. However, longwall panel length has not yet reached its limits, with some panels planned up to 25,000 ft. While longwall panel length is generally dictated by reserve size and extent, practical restrictions in mine planning also include seam thickness, ventilation requirements, or restrictions involving methane drainage. Super panels have certainly enabled the industry to keep pushing the limits of productivity improvement. However, important considerations in mine planning, now and especially in the future, will be driven in large part by geological factors. While larger developments improve productivity and capture economies of scale, the fact that super panels can contain at least four times the area or coal volume means that the probability of encountering serious anomalies is at least four times greater than with the “conventional” panels. Given the increased probability of encountering anomalies, improved assessment of geology is important for super panels and super sections. Proper due diligence requires a thorough and competent evaluation of a mining property and its ore reserve. Using improved geostatistical techniques is most important, and improving the base data for the analysis is equally important. The old cliché “garbage in, garbage out” certainly applies. Also, the quality of coal reserves is (or has been) declining, so, in the future, mining will be in deeper and most likely thinner seams—and these seams appear to contain greater anomalies that threaten efficient operations. To counter the impact of reserve deterioration, the industry is moving toward greater use of geophysical tools and services. Fortunately, tools such as the Radio Imaging Method™ (RIM-IV) system have been improved and can provide the industry with enhanced 2-D and 3-D images of coal seams and ore bodies. To identify and profile the best areas of a coal reserve, geologists, engineers, and mine managers need greater intelligence in the form of RIM-IV tomographic maps of longwall panels and room-and-pillar sections. These images have enhanced the understanding of in-seam features, which in turn has improved operational plans and performance.

Jan 1, 2005

By Andrzej Frycz

The development of the theory of reliability creates more and more possibilities of its application in different domains of technics. The methods evolved to date, both theoretical analysis of the engineering systems and investigations techniques in practice can be put in use a d translated from one science to another one [1,3,7J . It needs to consider the specific of the different sciences. But it is necessary to take account of the specific characteristic of each line of science. The reliability investigations needs, justified in technical and economical viewpoint appear too in mine ventilation technics and systems. The mine ventilation system is a complex of workings and ventilation plants, which serve to supply the networks with a sufficient quantity of fresh air from the atmosphere and then carry off the vitiated air. The condition necessary for a ventilation system to perform definite task is the correctness of all its elements, that is a capability to preserve in a expected range of tolerance, the values of basic parameters. The element of a system which ceases to work correctly is called failed. The basic parameter of all elements of a ventilation system is the characteristic curve, pressure loss - air quantity relation ?p = f(Q) (1) This curve concerning the workings and ventilation stoppings is given by the formula: ?p = R Q2 (2) thus the resistance R (of the workings or stoppings) may be taken as a characteristic parameter. The course of this characteristic f(Q) will be given in a complex form in concern with fans, ejectors, air curtains. The failure of a ventilation plant or working is therefore an event, relying on a change of its characteristic, thus for a definite time the losses of the plant's or working's capability set in for the fulfilment of its function in the ventilation system. The failures are divided in viewpoint of their nature on sudden and progressive. We are in concern with the sudden failures which are characterised by a violent change of the ventilation element parameter for example a fall of roof, or silt up of the working, opening or failure of the ventilation stopping, the stand-off of the fan or ejector etc. We distinguish two kinds of failures on the viewpoint of their action on the air flow: the "opening" failure and "closure" failure. The prevalence of factors, which causes the failures is in connection with the intersection in the mine of roads of haulage, roads of underground transport of materials and lining elements, roads of people motion with airways, as also depends on the rock pressure reaction on the workings lining and plants placed there. Other factors will yet be decisive upon supply decay of fans, ejectors and curtains. The appearance of failure of the ventilation element is therefore of random nature and determines the change of the element, when it is passing from operating state to unoperate. Qualifying the ventilation system element to one of these states is easy, when the characteristic change is clear and occurs suddenly, that was assumed. The investigations conducted by Patrushev and Karnaukh [91 in concern with the ventilation stoppings resistance change in the case of their opening, had shown the possibility of resistance value change in the range of several hundreds higher.

Jan 1, 1980

By Robin G. Adams

The market prices received by producers of internationally traded commodity metals have been, and continue to be remarkably volatile and unpredictable compared with most other traded goods and services. This volatility results in an erratic financial performance on the part of producing companies, disruptive and often inflationary cost changes for consumers, unreliable tax revenues and export earnings for host governments and severe social and economic pressures on local, sometimes remote, communities which are dependent on the activity in question. Generally speaking, price volatility appears to be associated with the inability of the metal producing side of the industry to regulate the volume of supply in a manner that is consistent with metal demand, which in turn reflects broad macroeconomic and industrial developments around the world. This statement does not purport to apply to all metals or to all instances of volatility of course. Price movements may occur as a result of pure speculation or even illegal manipulation of the commodity markets. Embargoes, boycotts and other politically induced supply changes may contribute. Threatened or actual strikes also cause artificial swings in sales volumes and prices. How- ever, most of these developments are of a short-term nature. Yet metals price cycles may last for several years, as demonstrated by the extended copper price trough from 1981 to 1986. This paper deals with price volatility which reflects long-term economic cycles and the adaptive processes that exist within the industry in response to such cycles. Special emphasis is placed on the role of forecasts and forecasters in these processes. It should be said at the outset that this reflects the personal experience of one forecaster working in private sector commercial consulting practices that are independent of producers, consumers and host governments. However, the experience does cover the entire period since 1973 and has involved working with a substantial majority of the major companies that supply high volume commodity metals. By way of background it should be stated that the post-1973 world economy has provided a challenging environment for forecasters. One cannot be precise about the forecasting record of either industry insiders or outside consultants, financial analysts and academic forecasters because comprehensive records have not been kept, or if they have the results are too embarrassing to be published. Institutions such as the World Bank have published forecasts of the prices of major commodities on a regular basis and these have, presumably, had some influence on financing decisions in the industry. This record along with our own experience and numerous discussions with metal producers, major consumers and host governments permits certain generalizations to be made. The most important of these is that during the early 1980s. from about 1980 through 1985/6, the forecasters system- atically and substantially over- estimated metal prices. While some fore- casters did correctly anticipate a recession in the early 1980s and some consequential decline in prices, the magnitude and duration of the decline was far greater than anyone foresaw. This systematic forecasting "failure" appears to have occurred independently of the forecasting methodology employed. Moreover, its extent cannot be explained by obvious factors such as incorrect macroeconomic assumptions. There appears to have been some kind of structural change in the world mining and metals industry over this period

Jan 1, 1989

By G. J. Simandl

Jade is a commercial term encompassing green, white, black or yellow-brown jadeitite and nephrite. Jadeitite consists of Na-rich pyroxene, whereas nephrite consists of prismatic to acicular amphiboles of the tremolite-actinolite series forming bundles that are randomly oriented and interlocked. Nephrite is tougher (harder to break) than jadeitite. Its fracture strength is about 200 MN/m2 whereas that of jadeitite is about 100 MN/m2. On the other hand, jadeitite has a higher hardness (7 compared to 6.5 on the Mohs scale). There are over fifty known nephrite occurrences in British Columbia (B.C.). These occurrences consist of individual blocks, boulder fields, talus blocks and in situ occurrences. Most of the in situ occurrences are lens or cigar shaped. They occur at, or near the contact of ultramafic/mafic rocks (mainly serpentinites) with cherts, and other metasedimentary or igneous felsic rocks of Mississippian to Jurassic oceanic terranes such as Cache Creek and Slide Mountain. These contacts are commonly interpreted as shear/fault related. In general, it is believed that the B.C. nephrite formed by metasomatic exchange between ultramafic and silica-bearing rocks. Impurities in B.C. nephrite are spinel group minerals (chromite, magnetite, picolite), diopside, uvarovite, titanite, chlorite, and talc. Jadeitite is slightly denser than nephrite and good quality material sinks in methyl iodine. There are no known jadeitite occurrences of economic interest in B.C., but there are at least four geographic areas where favorable lithologies, and metamorphic conditions (Pn) required for the formation of jadeitite coincide. These are Bridge River, Pinchi Lake, Dease Lake, and Jennings River. These areas are known to contain small concentrations of jadeite, or are characterized by blueschist or eclogite-grade metamorphic conditions. Rhodonite and pyroxmangite are MnSi03 polymorphs. These minerals are pyroxenoids and are macroscopically and microscopically very similar. For brevity, both are grouped together under the term "rhodonite". Most of the B.C. occurrences are hosted by late Paleozoic chert sequences and are lens shaped and concordant. The common association of rhodonite with iron formations, jasperoids, and/or volcanogenic sulphide deposits in southwestern B.C. permits the delineation of favorable horizons using magnetic or electro-magnetic geophysical methods. Geographic associations between manganese showings and sulphide deposits, and the hydrothermal chemical signature of the rhodonite occurrences from this area, suggest a genetic link between rhodonite and volcanogenic sulphide deposits. The typical rhodonite rocks consist of rhodonite, pyroxmangite, neotocite, black amorphous Mn-oxides, Mn-bearing garnet, ± epidote, ±chlorite, ±rhodochrosite, ± parakutnah-orite, ± Mn-bearing calcite, ± iron oxides and hydroxides. Garnet ± epidote forms yellow patches and layers within the rhodonite. Within some of the rhodonite occurrences, the garnet is altered to chlorite. Rhodonite-bearing rock is commonly cross cut by secondary manganese oxide veins, creating a characteristic web-like texture. In several localities, the contorted bedding planes are readily recognized. Mn-calcite and quartz also crosscut rhodonite. Rhodonite deposits hosted by high grade metamorphic rocks may contain pyroxmangite. Rhodonite is an important gemstone and ornamental stone in B.C., second only to nephrite in dollar value. B.C. nephrite and rhodonite have been used for the past 100 years in local jewelry and ornamental applications. More recently they have been used in table tops, and they have potential as upscale materials in tile-making. There may be a market for tiles made from lower grade materials that were previously extracted and stockpiled. The prices of nephrite, jadeitite, and rhodonite vary widely with quality, but gem and ornamental grade stones are relatively highly priced materials and they trade world-wide.

Jan 1, 2001

By Paul Schmidt, John Barber

This paper discusses the determination of cutoff grade (COG), including all revenue and cost factors and how to apply the COG in the world of engineering studies and mine planning for underground mines. It provides the engineer with important considerations and practical methods to establish COG and methods of using the COG in the work of mine planning, including the application of Mineable Stope Optimizer (MSO) software which is available on several 3D mine planning packages.

Feb 1, 2024

The leaching of gold and silver by ammonium thiosulfate solutions in the presence of copper has been actively studied in recent years. Newmont Gold Company has successfully tested the ammonium thiosulfate for gold extraction following biooxidation pretreatment of low grade refractory carbonaceous/sulfidic ores. In this paper, the chemistry of the copper catalyzed leaching process is reviewed. Factors affecting both the leaching reactions and the stability of the lixiviants are reviewed and discussed from a solution chemistry perspective.

Jan 1, 1996

By R. D. Shackleton

Medusa Cement Company, a division of Medusa Corporation, is a medium-sized cement manufacturer serving the midwest, east, and southeast. Medusa's eight plants are located in Georgia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Canada. Of these, six have active limestone, shale, clay, and sand quarries now in operation. This paper deals with the various individual state laws regulating mining and reclamation at the Georgia, Illinois, and Pennsylvania quarries. Several recommendations for future state mining laws are discussed also.

Jan 1, 1974

By C. E. Jordan

The Bureau of Mines conducted research to determine the effect of fine bubbles on the flotation of fine-sized particles (minus 20-um size). Turbulent flow collision models for fine particles and fine bubbles were reviewed. Velocity distributions within the flotation cell along with measured bubble and particle size distributions were considered in the models to predict the flotation response. The models were corroborated with laboratory fine-bubble flotation tests to verify the expected increase in flotation efficiency.

Jan 1, 1988

By H. P. Knudsen

In most open pit gold mines ore waste selection is based on estimates made from blasthole samples. These estimates frequently are biased. While it is true that high grades and "outliers" can induce a bias they may not be the only reason for the persistent bias seen at many mines. This paper focuses on a source of the conditional bias. In this paper it is shown that the poor blasthole sampling can cause a conditional bias in the estimates.

Jan 1, 1991