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By F. Lynwood Garrison

Except in the old Catalan forge, or its modifications, attempts to make iron and steel directly from ore in a practical and economical manner have failed so frequently and completely that such schemes are looked upon with justifiable distrust. Without exception, all have failed from one cause or another, although in some instances every indication of a practical success was manifest in the beginning. It is, therefore, necessary to carefully examine and consider every detail affecting the process, or more properly, furnace, under consideration. This I have done to the best of my ability during a long visit to Russia last summer, and after satisfactorily observing the practical success of the furnace in the iron works of Count Stroganoff at Dobriansky in the Government of Perm, I decided to investigate as completely as possible the history of similar furnaces in Finland and Russia. These data, sifted and verified with the greatest possible care, form the substance of the present paper.* An illustration on page 321 of Percy's Iron and Steel shows the old type of Osmundssmide or harkugnar, which has been in use in Northern Europe since pagan times. Fig. 1 shows a furnace of this kind. It should, perhaps, more properly be called a high-bloomary furnace or forge, the Swedish word hark meaning bloom or loupe. It was with this type of furnace that Mr. Husgafvel began his experiments at Porsaskoski in 1875. Attempts to obtain better results with larger furnaces of this type were failures, as every bloom or loupe obtained necessitated blowing out the furnace with a consequent large waste of fuel. A larger furnace of course increased this waste with no corresponding advantage. A movable hearth of threeeighth inch iron, lined with a mixture of clay, quartz and lime, was next tried, but in consequence of the frequent repairs of this lining,

Jan 1, 1888

By HERBERT G. MOULTON

FROM prehistoric times to our own day man has struggled against extremes of climate. Human life, originating in semi-tropical or temperate areas, was unable to progress into the northern latitudes until fire was discovered and some form of clothing provided. It was found possible to maintain life even in the hottest parts of the tropics, but only at a great sacrifice of comfort and efficiency compared with the more temperate zones, or in cooler areas with the protection of clothing and artificial heat. It was no accident, but the natural result of climatic conditions, that efficiency became the greatest and civilization the most advanced in areas where the natural climate was favorable, or in cooler zones where protection against severe cold could be se-cured by relatively simple methods of conserving or producing heat.

Jan 1, 1933

By John D. Wiebmer

First, a definition of a small scale miner is in order. The US Bureau of Mines classifies him as one who produces 360 t/d (400 stpd) of ore or less. In Canada, he would be refered to as a "junior company." Mexico identifies the small scale miner as one whose gross income from operations is less than $880,000 per year. A small surface mine in India employs less than 400 people, and a small underground mine employs less than 150. Peru considers a small scale miner one who produces less than 54 000 t/y (60,000 stpy) of ore. Obviously, the term is relative. What may be a small mine in one country is a medium or large mine in another. This lack of agreement is understandable since small scale mining does not often cross national boundaries. Rather, its effects are felt at the regional and local levels within each nation. Its importance doesn't lie with any huge contribution to the GNP or balance of trade. Instead, its value is as a local employer and as a frontrunner in geologic exploration.

Jan 2, 1979

By AIME AIME

In the present number of Mining and Metallurgy, issued on the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the Institute, it appears appropriate to chronicle a few of the interesting incidents respecting its early life. We are fortunate in being able to cull the following notes from unpublished manuscripts of Doctor Raymond and Doctor Drinker, than whom no other members could have written with greater exactness and fidelity. THE seventh decade of the 19th century may be said to have marked an. era in the history of the world. Industrially and .commercially it was marked by the wide application and utilization of discoveries already made, which came to their full effect at this period in steamships, railways, telegraph and cable lines; the standardization of parts in machines, from watches to locomotives; the use of 'dynamite, antiseptic surgery, the open-hearth steel process, the compressed-air rock-drill, the electric generator, and the Gatling gun. Through the opening of the Suez canal in 1870 the maritime trade of the world was revolutionized, sailing vessels were supplanted by steamers, while ocean cables and ocean "tramps" brought about far more rapid movement of commerce than had before been experienced. Politically, this period was marked by the sudden birth of the German empire and the beginning of that intensive internal development of the national resources of that empire in preparation for colonial extension and war, the amazing result of which has been made evident by the recent world conflict. In the United States, the significance of this decade was peculiarly important. The re-admission to the union of Virginia, Mississippi, Texas and Georgia in

Jan 1, 1921

By T. Kunitake, H. W. Paxton

The self-diffusion coefficient of chromium in various alloys in the iron-chromium system has been measured. A variation in Dofrom 10-4 for pure chromium to a maximum of 102 near 60 pct Cr appears with a range of activation energy from about 50 to 80 kcal per mol. The general pattern of behavior observed is not consistent with present theories of diffusion by a vacancy mechanism. Suggestions are made for further clarifying experiments. RECENT work on the self-diffusion of chromium,' ?-uranium2-4 and ß-zirconium,23, 26 has indicated that these elements have very low Do (10-3 to 10-4) compared to that conventionally expected for vacancy diffusion. Pound et al.5 have suggested that this may be due to ring diffusion being operative, and have proposed a model which gives Do of the correct order of magnitude. The essential difference between this model and Zener's earlier model6 is that whereas Zener assumes tight coupling between atoms in a ring to establish a vibrational frequency, Pound's model allows the atoms to vibrate essen- tially each in their own normal modes. The probability of each atom moving in the correct direction to cause a ring of n atoms to rotate by 2p/n must then be calculated as a "synchronal entropy" which may be -20 e.u. for a 4 atom ring. In iron, the latest determinations of self-diffusion yield Do in the range 18 to 522.7-9 The most accurate is probably that of Borg and Birchenall8 which is 118 ± 3. This value is not inconsistent with that expected for a vacancy mechanism. Since iron and chromium are very closely similar in size, are both transition metals, and their solution is thermodynamically ideal at temperatures of interest in diffusion, it appeared that a determination of self-diffusion coefficients, Do and Q as a function of composition would be of substantial interest to diffusion theory. The following measurements were made with this purpose in mind.

Jan 1, 1961

By Royal Preston Jarvis

minerals of different specific gravities. It is simple in construction, easily operated, capable of treating large quantities in a short time, and highly efficient under various conditions. The question, whether the material to be jigged has first been sized, determines the two principal methods of jigging. Jigging preceded by close sizing, generally known as the Continental or German system, involves a more or less elaborate series of screens or trommels, with attendant cost for installation, operation, and repairs. Jigging without sizing, known as the English system, is, according to Munroe,1 a development of the hand-jigging formerly employed in Cornwall . and introduced by English miners to this country." In its simplest form, the method consists in jigging an ore-mixture previously crushed to some maximum size (although, in some cases, even this preliminary is omitted) oil a relatively coarse sieve, and then jigging again on a filler sieve, the material passing through the first sieve and bedding. While many modifications have been necessary to adapt it for use in mills of large capacity, where hand-work was necessarily, replaced by machines, the principle remains the same; the fact that the English system has been successfully employed, both in this country and abroad, is well known; and arguments have been made for its efficiency and applicability in a wider sphere than it has occupied hitherto. II. REVIEW OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS. The fact that treating a mixture of minerals under jigging conditions increased the amount of mineral saved, or, as Professor Richards aptly terms it, 1 ?the extra jig-catch," has long been known. To account for this fact a number of theories have been proposed. The work of Rittinger2 in this field has, for many years, been a classic in the literature of ore-dressing. For the purposes of my present paper, however, the work of two American investigators, Prof. H. S. Munroe and Prof. R. H. Richards, is chiefly concerned. Professor Munroe has given the results of an elaborate series of experiments,3 and his deductions, based largely oil theoretical grounds, of this work. After reviewing briefly the two systems of jigging, followed by a discussion of Rittinger's formulas and

Sep 1, 1908

By C. E. Corson

THE experiments of which the results and significance are set forth in this paper do not by any means cover the whole subject of the heat-treatment of the material referred to, yet they constitute a contribution to that general subject, rather than to the special department of annealing. The material here considered is acid open-hearth steel, containing from 0.50 to 0.80 per cent of carbon, with a nearly uniform percentage of other elements. This class of steel is rapidly increasing in commercial importance. It is even rumored that the rail-specifications of some railroads will hereafter require open-hearth steel. Yet this particular grade seems to have received less study and description from the standpoint of the metallographist than many others. The investigation here described was directed to the following points:-Steel containing about 0.50 per cent, of carbon : 1. The structure as related to the temperature, at the same rate of cooling; 3. The structure and physical properties as related to temperature at different rates of cooling; 3. The structure and physical properties as related to different finishing-temperatures and different rates of cooling; 4. The bearing of these observations upon the statement of Prof. Albert Sauveur.1

Sep 1, 1906

By G. G. Oberfell

THOUGH the largest volume use of natural gas has been, is. and in all probability will continue to be as a fuel for domestic and industrial heating, it has various market outlets, both as a fuel and as a raw material for the chemical industry. Natural gas is a preferred type of fuel where ease of control, fuel uniformity, and freedom from ash are of primary importance. Other industrially important uses are as a source of carbon black and as a fuel in various low-cost heating operations. Many other uses are of varying importance and new potential uses are continually being uncovered, some being of economic importance to the gas indus¬try as a whole, but most of them involve such small volumes of gas that they are only of passing interest. Since various products extracted from natural gas and recovered as by-products from petroleum refining, such as liquefied petroleum gas and fuel oil, are being utilized in many industrial and domestic heating applications, some consideration will have to be given such materials in order to present a reasonably complete story of the importance of natural gas. Some of these materials may prove to be transient competitors and will not be available when more profitable uses are found for them. Meanwhile, however, the potential volumes of such materials available, the current volumes being marketed, and the nature of the utilization are considered as constituting an essential part of the over-all fuel picture.

Jan 1, 1946

||Abad, Leopoldo F., Min Engr, Div of Mines, Bureau of Science Manila, P I '23 Abadilla, Quirico A, Geol, Lago Pet Corp Box 172, Maracaibo, Venezuela '20 ||Abbey, Robert Graham, The W W Sly Mfg Co Train Ave, Cleveland, Ohio '21 Abbott, A. N., Mines Supt, Mazapil Copper Co, Ltd Concepcion del Oro, Mexico '23 Abbott, Clarence E., Mgr, Mines & Quarries, Tenn Coal, Iron & R R Co, 1242 Brown Marx Bldg, Birmingham, Ala. '04 Abbott, Louis Benjamin, Chief Engr , Consolidation Coal Co , Elkhorn Div Jenkins, Ky. '16 Abbott, Robert R., Met Engr , Peerless Motor Car Co Cleveland, Ohio '12 ||Abbott, Wells Osborn, Ray Consolidated Copper Co Hayden, Ariz. '23 Abeel, George H, Jr., Cons Min Engr 4612 West 17th St , Los Angeles, Cal '18 Abel, Albert E., Asst to Pres, Valley Mould & Iron Corp Sharpsville, Pa. '19 Abernathy, George Elmer, Prof of Geol & Min , Kansas State Teachers College, Pittsburg, Kans. '20 Abey, Hiroshi, Min & Met Engr, Min & Met Dept, The Higher Technical School, Osaka, Japan. '17 ||d'Ablaing, Philip R, Chem , Anaconda Copper Min Co Great Falls, Mont '25 Aborn, Robert H , Research Assoc., Mass Inst of Tech Cambridge, Mass '19 Abouchar, Sylvain Sley, Min. Engi & Geol , care of S H Sekaly, 13 Rue El Nimr, Cairo, Egypt '17

Jan 1, 1923

By Samuel B. Christy

At the last meeting of the Institute, several contributions were made to the subject of miners' aid funds. Such matters will always form important factors in the administration of large industrial enterprises. From the frequently remote and isolated position of mining properties, it is a subject that often forces itself upon the attention of the mining engineer. Local conditions are usually so variable that no single method can be found equally well adapted to all localities. At the same time, a study of different types is often suggestive and valuable, and it is with this in view that these notes are presented. The Miners' Fund of New Almaden is a remarkably successful example of what may be done for miners by a wise and at the same time firm management, by simply directing their own efforts and without incurring any great expense to the stockholders,—a practical consideration not without importance in most cases. The quicksilver mines of New Almaden are situated at a distance

Jan 1, 1885

By AIME AIME

THE Federated American Engineering Societies through its Executive Board has endorsed House Bill 5230, introduced April 26, 1921, which provides for- the completion of the topographical survey of the United States. Before this bill can be reported out it will be necessary for the House Committee on -interstate and foreign commerce to hold hearings. This will not be done unless the engineers of the country show interest -and demand action which should be taken immediately after the recess ends and Congress reconvenes this fall. Surveys and maps have been made in this country ever since Captain John Smith mapped Chesapeake Bay about. 300 years ago, but it is only in comparatively recent years that the need for accurate maps has been keenly felt by those engaged in the industrial' and commercial development of the country.

Jan 1, 1921

By Edgar L. Weinberg, W. Horatio Brown

The Austinville-Ivanhoe lead-zinc deposit occurs in the Lower Cambrian Shady dolomite. This deposit is located in southwestern Virginia in the faulted and folded Appalachian Valley and Ridge province. The ore bodies resemble the chimmey and manto deposits of northern Mexico and are formed by replacement and filling. They are confined to certain favorable zones of the Austinville and Ribbon members of the Shady. Structural and stratigraphic factors combine to control the location and form of the ore bodies. In certain places secondary oxide enrichment of the zinc minerals has contributed to the economic development of the area. It is concluded that the ore is epigenetic and is deposited by hydrothermal solutions rising through the fault "plumbing." Classification is epithermal-telethermal.

Jan 1, 1968

By MAURICE ALTMAYER

M Y DUTIES, as a member of the Department of Franco-American War Cooperation of the French High Commission were to study the copper and brass industries of America from the mining of the various non-ferrous metals to the semi-finished, or finished materials. In the pursuit of these studies, it was my privilege to visit a number of industries and organizations in different parts of the country. I first visited most of the Eastern copper refineries that were supplying the Allies with vast amounts of metal. These works are producing their material by the multiple or the series process, although the first method predominates. But, regardless of the process employed all the plants attain an exceptionally high standard of quality in their production. One of the points that particularly attracted attention was the manner in which improvements could be traced from the older worlds to the more recent ones. The impression was that, thanks to a spirit of broad-minded cooperation between the principals of the companies and frequent exchanges of views between members of the staffs, all persons interested benefitted by the experience thus gained, to the advantage of the community at large.

Jan 1, 1920

Meeting of Mar. 26, 1915.-The following Committee on Nominations was appointed: Fred W. Bradley, Chairman; James F. Kemp, Past President; Frank M. Smith, Chairman Montana Section; R. C. Gemmell, Chairman Utah Section; Frank A. Ross, Chairman Columbia Section; Louis S. Cates, Arthur Thacher. The Committee on Precious and Base Metals and the Committee on . Coal and Coke were appointed, the personnel of which is shown in another part of this Bulletin. The President was authorized to appoint a Committee on Welfare with J. Parke Channing as Chairman. W. P. Cutter, Librarian of the United Engineering Societies' Library, was appointed a representative of the Institute on-the Committee oh Classification of Engineering Knowledge to co-operate with similar committees of other engineering societies. A vote of thanks was extended-to Edward B. Sturgis for his excellent work in arranging for the Annual Dinner. in February, of this year. The suns of $57.30 was appropriated to the New' York Section. It was resolved that in response to the courteous invitation from 36 members of the Institute in Arizona and the neighborhood, the 1916 summer meeting of the Institute be held in Arizona.

Jan 5, 1915

By R. W. Raymond

Edward Cooper was born in New York City, Oct. 26, 1824. His father, Peter Cooper, to say nothing of manifold reasoils for fame as an inventor and philanthropist, deserves to be remembered as a pioneer in the establishment .of public schools ; and it is not surprising that. he sent his son to one of the democratic institutions in which he was himself so ardently interested. From the public school Edward Cooper went to Columbia College, where he made the acquaintance of Abram S. Hewitt, who was first his tutor, afterwards his traveling companion, brother-in-law, business partner and life-long friend.' For twenty years I was the consulting engineer of the firm of Cooper & Hewitt, and also connected with the work of the Cooper Union, in which they were both deeply interested and faithfully active. On the basis of the intimate knowledge thus gained, I venture an estimate of Edward Cooper's character and career which, if not fully comprehensive, may facilitate a juster estimate than would be reached by the student of those data which the modesty of the man permitted to be placed upon public record.

Jan 1, 1907

Payloader The Frank G. Hough Co. has made available another four-wheel drive tractor-shovel. It has a 1 cu-yd bucket with 60 hp Diesel or 54 hp gasoline power optional. The use of large pneumatic tires, same size all around, and drive on all four wheels gives this new Payloader traction to work effectively in sand, mud and snow, and travel on pavements with- [ ] out injuring the surface. Rear wheel steer with power booster plus short wheel base makes it easy to operate and highly maneuverable. Four speeds in both directions insure fast travel speeds for transport and fast operating speeds on shuttle loading or similar operations. Bulldozer blade, crane hook, fork lift and snow plow attachments are available, quickly interchangeable with the bucket to further increase its multi-purpose usefulness. Circle No. 1

Jan 1, 1952

US 4,190,434 - In the thermal production of magnesium metal, a mixture of calcined dolomite, an iron- silicon-aluminum alloy as a reductant, and residual slag from the production of ferrochromium is smelted to evolve magnesium vapor, which is then condensed. The use of bauxite is lessened or eliminated because of the relatively high alumina content of the residual slag. R. Bonfils, A. Mena, C. Payn, and L. Septier, assigned to Ste. Francaise d’Electrometallurgie (SOFREM). Feb. 26, 1980. 6 pp. (75-10R). Filed: 6-14-78 (915,387). Priority: France, 6-24-77 (77/20,227).

Jan 1, 1982

By William Priestley

The author has shown, by .practical experiments, how the rate of cooling steel in the mold governs ingotism, segregation, the formation of dendrites, and the distribution of intergranular material; and the resulting effect these conditions have on the physical qualities of the steel before annealing, after annealing, and after forging. The paper also describes how the structure of steel is affected by the design of the mold and the method of pouring. It is shown that the various constituents of carbon steel segregate differently under different rates of cooling. For the classes of steel covered in this paper, it is concluded that the best physical structure and the most uniform chemical composition is obtained by pouring the steel at a low temperature and solidifying as rapidly as possible in the mold. MUCH time has been devoted, by metallurgists, to the study of steel after solidification and remarkable strides have been made in the heat treatment of steel, but less knowledge is available of the thermophysical, activity of the constituents of steel prior to solidification in the mold. It is known that certain elements added to steel produce marked changes in physical properties, also that other elements added to steel produce similar changes, but we have only meager knowledge as to how these elements combine in steel under different conditions of solidification. It is not sufficient to know, from chemical analysis, that a certain element is present in steel. We should know how this element is in combination with the other elements and whether the combination is such as will give the greatest physical properties. Certain elements go into solid solution with the iron, while others segregate to the grain boundaries and combine with the impurities collected there. Until it is known where an alloy produces the most beneficial effect and a means, is determined for controlling its physical location by altering solidification conditions, or otherwise, we will not obtain the maximum value from our alloys.

Jan 2, 1924

[Aamot, Clav Crone, (Member '29) Met., Det Norske Aktieselskab for Elektrokemisk, Industri, Inc., Oslo, Norway. Aamot, 0, Crone, (Member '29) c/o Elektrokemisk, Radhusgaten 23, Oslo, Norway. Aase, Glenn D., (Junior Member '40) Jr. Met., American Smelt. & Refin. Co., Selby, Calif. Abadie, Henry G., (Junior Member '43) Div. Petr. Engr., Union Pacific R.R. Co., 422 W. 6th St., Los Angeles 14, Calif. Abbott, Clarence E., (Member '04) Civil Engr., V.P., Tennessee Coal, Iron & R.R. Co., 1542 Brown Marx Bldg., Birmingham, Ala. Abbott, Fred E., Jr., (Member '44) Petr. Engr., c/o Arabian American Oil Co., A.P.O. 816, c/o Postmaster, New York, N. Y. Abel, Raymond L., (Member '28) Chem. Engr., 0. 0., Pittsburgh Chem. Warfare Procurement Dist., American Bank Bldg., Pittsburgh, Pa.]

Jan 1, 1946

[Aamot, Olav Crone, (M'29) Chem. Engr., Elektrokemisk, Raadhusgt. 23, Oslo, Norway. Abadilla, Quirico A., (M'38) Min. Engr., Dir. Bureau of Mines, Manila, P. 1. Abbott, Agatin, (J'40) Asst. Geol., Trench Mine, Patagonia, Ariz. Abbott, Clarence E., (M'04) Civil Engr., V.P., Tennessee Coal Iron & R.R. Co., 1642 Brown Marx Bldg., Birmingham, Ala. Abel, Raymond L., (M'28) Prof., Chem. Engrg., Univ. of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. Abel. Walter D., (M'32) Min. Engr., Div. of Corporations, State of Calif., 403 California State Bldg., Los Angeles, Calif. Abele, Louis T., (M'31) 4800 Patterson Ave.. Richmond, Va. Abell, Leo M., (M'31) Research Met., Mount Morgan Ltd., Mount Morgan, Queens., Australia. Abenius, Hakan V., (M'37) c/o Falu Gruva, Falun, Sweden.]

Jan 1, 1940