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By James F. McDivitt

The mineral industry of today is faced with a number of dilemmas, not the least of which grows out of the series of related facts-world mineral consumption is growing, and is expected to continue to grow; maintaining adequate capacity to meet needs will require very great capital investment over the next decades, investment which must be measured in billions of dollars; much of the new production must come from remote and relatively underdeveloped countries; many of the areas in which such development must take place are not areas in which private capital enters without some trepidation. There are real problems in financing new mineral development-problems which have occupied the thoughts of many in the industry. One group which is currently providing part of the answer, and perhaps pointing the way to further progress in the future, is the World Bank. Loans from the World Bank are arranged usually for countries which are attempting to develop their economies through expanded industrial production. More often than not they are for the development of electric power projects or transportation facilities. Although we consider the mineral industries to be basic factors in industrial development and very important factors in the early stages of development of a country, few of these loans are for mineral development-no more than a half dozen out of a total of well over 300 loans which have been granted to date. Yet the World Bank has played a far more important part in world mineral development than these figures would indicate. The few loans for mineral development which it has made are important, but of considerably greater importance are the secondary effects of many of the non-mineral development loans and some of the special services which the Bank also offers.

Jan 5, 1963

By Paul A. Beck

It is well known that the hardness of metallic single crystals, like that of polycrystalline metals, increases during deformation (hardening by cold-work). It is also known that, as a consequence of deformation. the metallic material acquires an evident thermodynamic instability, revealed, for example, by the fact that the increased hardness gradually decreases with time, especially at elevated temperatures (softening by annealing). The temperature at which the stabilizing process begins is different for various metals, and for any metal it depends on the amount of deformation. Such stabilization of deformed metals may proceed in two different ways: through recovery, and through recrystallization. The former process allows the unstable deformed metal body to approach stability gradually and without visible change in the grain structure; the latter process, like an allotropic transformation, yields directly the undeformed stable "phase" in the form of new undeformed crystals, which, starting out of a certain number of nuclei, grow into and " consume " the deformed hard material. The extent of stability attainable through recovery is limited, especially if the deformation of the metal crystal or crystals involves not only the gliding along slip planes, but also the bending of the slip lamellae, or at any rate the bending of comparatively large parts of the crystal lattice. In such cases, for instance in bent single crystals or polycrystalline metals subjected to any deformation, recovery will not as a rule be able to restore the "istraight" undeformed lattice, and stability can be attained only by recrystallization; that is, by the consumption of the bent crystal lattice parts by new, undeformed crystals—a much more drastic process. It is evident that the part of the surplus free energy stored in deformed crystals, which is present in the form of the elastic energy of the bent lamellae, is in these instances not considerably involved

Jan 1, 1937

Discussion of the paper of G. Howell Clevenger and Bhupendranath Ray, presented at the New York Meeting, October, 1913, and printed in Bulletin No. 82, October, 1913, pp. 2437 to 2475. ALLERTON S. CUSHMAN,* Washington, D. C.:-I am very much interested in the subject matter of this paper. I have had occasion to speak to this question before. There has recently been so much written and said and claimed about the effect produced by the addition of small quantities of copper to steel that there is certainly an impression abroad that a new and wonderful cure-all has been discovered. Are we facing a method of alchemy by which, at the expenditure of very little trouble and only a few cents' worth of copper per ton, the well-known characteristics of steel with respect to some features are so marvelously changed as in effect to produce a new metal ? I am a great believer in the future of the iron and steel alloy field. I do not think that with all the advances we have made in metallurgy we have begun to scratch the possibilities of usefulness to mankind in the exploration of the alloy field, and I include in that alloy field even what might be designated as the dilute alloy field; that is to say, where a very small quantity of a metal alloyed with iron and steel confers upon it some new or extraordinary qualities. With respect to many of the physical characteristics of the copper-iron or copper-steel alloys I am not particularly competent to speak. With respect, however, to the investigation of corrosion problems and with respect to claims made with regard to resistance to corrosion, I am competent to speak insofar as I have specialized to some extent in that field and have given up a great deal of my time for a great many years to a study of it. Some years ago, being particularly interested in the study of corrosion problems, I received the very generous permission of a large manufacturing concern to use their large open-hearth furnaces any way I saw fit for exploring this particular field. There is not a metallurgist in this room who will not realize the generosity of a manufacturing company who would permit a man to pursue a theory and give him as his material to work with 60 tons of molten metal. At all events, I threw copper into the open-hearth furnace. I explored this alloy field, not in a ittle crucible in which I had to take out portions and have them

Jan 12, 1913

ON JUNE 7 the German Government handed to the French and Belgians a new proposal for reparations, which offered 1,200,000,000 gold marks annually, to be guaranteed as to 500,000,000 by a mortgage on the national railways, as to another 500,000,000 by a mortgage on industry, commerce, land and factories, and as to 200,000,000 by a luxury tax. The number of years for which this payment should run to be left to settlement by an international conference. This offer was taken under consideration by the French and Belgians, who instituted conversa-tions with the British in the hope of arriving, at some joint action with respect to the Germans. Up to the end of June nothing had been determined. In the meanwhile, the continued French and Belgian occupation of the Ruhr seemed to develop a condition of guerilla warfare, considerable bloodshed occurring throughout the region. The second Lausanne Conference dragged on, the Allies being apparently unable to take any firm, joint stand, while the Turks increased their importunities and managed to get concession after concession. Early in June a revolution occurred in Bulgaria, the previous Government under Premier Stambulisky, based on the agrarian party, being forcibly thrown out by a bourgeois and military combination. This pro-duced considerable disorder in Bulgaria, outside of which country the nature and purpose of the revolution does not appear to be well understood. Stambulisky's partisans offered feeble, isolated resistance to the revolu-tion; in connection with which there was some blood-shed and Stambulisky himself was reported killed, although this was later contradicted. Professor Zan-kof, the new Premier, issued a statement, that the change of the Government was the result of discontent, that the foreign policy of the new Government would be peaceful, and that Bulgaria would continue to fulfill her international obligations, particularly the treaty of Neuilly. It was the opinion of London that the immu-nity from taxation enjoyed by the farmers under the agrarian regime is likely to he superseded by more equi-table taxation, and in general that the bourgeoisie will be better administrators of the public affairs In domestic affairs industrial activity continued at a high rate, but there was distinct relaxation in the demand for raw materials, and also in some manufac-tured goods. During June there were reductions of prices by many of the automobile tire manufacturers. There seemed to be also further contraction in the demand for automobiles.

Jan 6, 1923

By Richard Thomas Newcomb

Chapters 5a, 5b, and 6 discuss the long- run supply of minerals and the characteristics of reserve search and production peculiar to extractive industries. It is now necessary to complete the picture by examining supply and demand in commodity markets to show how mineral prices are determined and how both price and production trends might be predicted over long periods of time. These practical interests can be served best by reviewing first some of the characteristics of the short-run static market models familiar to all readers of elementary economic texts, and then extending the theory to models of a more dynamic nature. It is important at the outset to note that economic theory provides a wide variety of economic models based on varying assumptions concerning the behavior of economic agents, the properties of the goods, the time period considered, and so on. Each variety of model offers certain analytical advantages and suffers certain shortcomings. The art of the applied economist or practioner lies in knowing enough both about the technology and practice of his problem and about theory to select the appropriate models for his analysis. In our approach it will be useful first to consider the role of markets for minerals and mineral products in relation to the efficient determination of what and how goods are produced in the whole economy, i.e., a general system of markets, before getting down to the task of analyzing supply and demand conditions in specific markets. The former study is called general equilibrium analysis, while the latter is called partial. By equilibrium is meant a state of the sys- tem under study in which supply equals demand in each market, and the prices which equilibrate the quantities offered and asked are called equilibrium prices. The tendency of prices to return toward equilibrium values if temporarily displaced, or to converge to new equilibrium values if important new conditions for supply or for demand are placed, defines "stable" equilibrium systems. The short-run describes a period in which adjustments to fixed capital are not made, although variable factors such as labor or materials can be adjusted. The long-run envisions a period in which fixed capital and other such constraints can be adjusted. Thus, it may take a sharp increase in price to bring out additional supply of a factor in the short-run with existing plant, while new capacity might permit additional quantities in the long-run without an increase in supply price.

Jan 1, 1976

Book Review MEXICO UNDER CARRANZA. By Thomas E. Gibbon, Los Angeles, California. Doubleday Page and Co., New York, 1919, 270 pp., 711/2 X 5 in. $1.50. A vivid, accurate, convincing summing up of the Mexican problem as it confronts us today, devoid of sensationalism or bigotry. A compelling narrative of the relations of the Carranza Government and our own from Oct. 15, 1915, when it was recognized as the de facto government of Mexico, to the present time. It shows the absolute lack of promises kept or lived up to either with its own people or the United States. This is not done by invective or the indiscriminate use of adjectives but by quoting from the instruments on record on both sides of the case. The driving of the Red Cross out of Mexico, which condemned many of the native peons to starvation, and the interference with the Pershing Punitive Expedition are merely mentioned, but the crying crime against the Mexican people, who have sunk to unbelievable depths of misery obscured, but not exceeded, by the sufferings in Europe, is held up in a clarified light. Two illuminating chapters are devoted to the character and treatment of foreign investments in Mexico, Which are a complete refutation of the common statement that Mexico has been exploited remorselessly by the foreign investor. The conces-sions given by Diaz in the days of his regime most condemned are nowise as large nor the land grants as extensive nor the title so absolute as those granted to the railroad builders of our own transcontinental systems and other of our nationally subsidized works. This is not left to further argument but is settled by quoting the various official instruments and not at all in a tedious way. The author's concluding chapter is a picture of the Mexican people from Aztec times, when they had reached a civilization which gave them a better calendar than the Roman Empire ever had until modern times, to their present unhappy and pitiful condition. He concludes, basing his findings on parallel historical downfalls of a once proud people, that present conditions are the natural result of the absolute domination of an alien minority. He grants, of course, that there are many estimable Latin-Mexicans of integrity, ability and charm, but maintains that the dominant minority has continually degraded in fulfillment of the sociological law that the sure revenge of the servile class is found in the corruption of the master class. The book is replete with historical and literary allusions which, added to the pleasing style of the accomplished author, make fascinating the account of one of the world's great tragedies. Mr. Gibbon is a lawyer who has spent much time in Mexico and shows an understanding of the native people not shared by all writers on the Mexican problem. A distinct addition to all literature on the subject. P. E. B.

Jan 8, 1919

Jan 1, 1917

By Robert B. Sosman

ONE of the most neglected fields for physicochemical education as well as for research is that of high-temperature phenomena. Few universities or technical schools give instruction in the physical chemistry of substances at high temperatures. On the contrary such instruction is almost entirely confined to the region between the freezing and boiling points of water. This field should be extended to a much wider range of temperatures, both low and high. Such an extension is logical, sound, feasible, and practical.

Jan 1, 1943

By Royal B. Jackman, Carle R. Hayward

Two comprehensive papers have appeared regarding the forms of copper that occur in smelter slags, one by Frank E. Lathe1 and the other by C. G. Maier and G. D. Van Arsdale.2 These authors comment on other published results and draw conclusions from their own investigations. The development of X-ray examination of minerals and improvement in high-power microscopic methods make it possible today to get additional evidence by means that were not available to earlier investigators. The present work was confined to reverberatory slags obtained from five different plants. Some definite conclusions were reached regarding the forms of copper present in these slags. In most cases these agree with some of the findings of Maier and Van Arsdale but new methods of attack were used in the investigation. Conclusions of Previous Investigators Various important conclusions reached by previous investigators are summarized in the following paragraphs, arranged chronologically. William A. Heywood:3 Slag losses increase with grade of matte but with the same grade of matte losses decrease as the acidity of the slag increases. Lewis T. Wright:' Slag losses are only partly due to prills of matte. It is suggested that part of the copper is dissolved in the slag. J. Parke Channing9 A considerable part of the copper enters the slag as silicate or oxide and not as sulfide. C. A. Grabill:6 Slag losses are both physical and chemical. Physical losses, due to poor settling, gas flotation and slight differences in specific gravity, are small under normal conditions. Chemical losses may- be due to formation of oxides or to solution of metals and sulfides. The last is considered the most important. John W. James:' The copper in converter slag is largely the oxide and as such enters the reverberatory slag when converter slag is added to the charge.

Jan 1, 1934

By Robert Archer

Two new alloys of the "strong alloy" class having improved fabricating qualities are described; also methods of producing alloys of the duralumin type with greater strength and hardness than previously obtained, are given. IT is about fifteen years since the development in Germany, largely by Alfred Wilm, of the aluminum alloy called duralumin. In this alloy, combining as it does the tensile strength of mild steel with the lightness and corrosion resistance of aluminum, a distinctly new material was presented to the engineering world. Despite the evident usefulness of this material, however, its commercial development has been slow, due in part to the difficulties involved in its fabrication. In view of the potentially great utility of strong aluminum alloys, it seemed desirable to find means of producing such alloys with better fabricating properties, and work was undertaken with this object in the laboratories of the Aluminum Company of America several years ago. This work has resulted in the production of two new types of aluminum alloy of the "strong alloy" class, having distinctly improved fabricating qualities. The knowledge gained has also made it possible to produce alloys of the duralumin type with greater strength and hardness than previously obtained. There have thus been made available some new engineering materials which it is the object of this paper to describe. These alloys, including duralumin, are fundamentally wrought alloys. Castings of the same compositions, heat-treated in the same manner give inferior physical properties, particularly as to ductility. The statements made subsequently concerning properties and heat treatment apply to material that has received sufficient working to thoroughly break down the cast structure. The material referred to has; in general, undergone a reduction in section of at least 80 per cent. by mechanical working. It may be mentioned in passing that other compositions have been found that are suitable for the production of the maximum physical properties in heat-treated castings.

Jan 2, 1925

By Paul R. Martin, R. B. Kelly

The area comprising what is geographically termed "Central Texas" was somewhat less active in 1934 than in 1933. The year saw the completion of 182 dry holes and only 74 producing wells. Bexar, Williamson and Bastrop counties, with active fields such as Yturri-Southton, Byersville, North Dale and Cedar Creek contributed a majority of the new oil wells. Hilbig, in Bastrop County, 1933's most important discovery in the district, saw no development during the current year. New fields opened in 1934 were Byersville, a serpentine intrusion in Williamson County, and Manda, producing from similar material in Travis County. Like most of the other serpentine plugs, neither gives promise of covering a very large area. Other active counties were Bexar, Bastrop and Caldwell, although successful operations in each of them were limited to the old fields. The location of producing fields is shown on Fig. 1. New Fields Byersvil1e.—Late in 1933, Fritz Fuchs completed Zeischang No. 1, eight miles south of Taylor, Williamson County, for an initial production of 25 bbl. per day. The oil is 37" B6. A.P.I. gravity and is from Serpentine formation at approximately 900 ft. Additional drilling was carried on in 1934, and at the end of the year 18 producing wells had been completed, proving about 200 acres. Manda.—The Manda field, or Kimbro field as it is termed by some, received its first production Sept. 10, 1934, when the Humble Oil & Refining Co. completed No. 1 C. J. Peterson as an 8-bbl. oil well. The new field is near Littig, in eastern Travis County, and is about 15 miles northeast of Austin. Production is found in serpentine formation between 650 and 750 ft. The same company's No. 1 Buck Christian, second well in the field, flowed 190 bbl. per day through a ?-in choke. Although only a small area has been definitely proven it is expected that present drilling will provide extensions in several directions.

Jan 1, 1935

By B. C. Craft

Louisiana experienced deeper and increased drilling during 1934, resulting in the discovery of five new fields: Bosco, Acadia and St. Landry Parishes; Lake Hermitage, Plaquemines Parish; Roanoke, Jefferson Davis Parish; Gillis, Calcasieu Parish; and Four Isle, Terrebonnc Parish. New sands were discovered at New Iberia, Iberia Parish; Lake Washington, Plaquemines Parish; Sligo, Bossier Parish; and in the Rodessa gas field, Caddo Parish. Other miscellaneous events worthy of mention are the continued leasing of prospective oil and gas lands in North and South Louisiana, extensive geophysical work in the Gulf Coastal area, and increased interest in the development of flank production on piercement type domes, resulting in the acquisition of flank acreage and the leasing of several shallow domes in the Gulf Coast and Interior salt-dome areas. The total oil production for Louisiana during 1934 was 32,529,082 bbl., an increase of 6,929,280 bbl. over 1933. The total daily production at the end of the year from 2421 wells was 102,752 barrels. North Louisiana During the year, 144 oil wells and 68 gas wells were completed in North Louisiana as compared with 111 oil wells and 47 gas wells during 1933. The North Louisiana oil production was 9,274,050 bbl. as compared with 10,023,580 bbl. during 1933, a decline of 749,530 bbl. The normal decline in the old fields and especially in the Zwolle area was partly offset by increased production in the Converse field, Sabine Parish, and by acid treatment of wells in the Zwolle, Converse and Caddo fields. There were no new fields discovered during 1934. During the year R. W. Norton enlarged the boundaries and reserves of the Rodessa gas field. A series of gas-bearing sands, was discovered in J. B. French, No. 1-B, sec. 34, 23 N. 16 W., below the oolitic lime found at 5500 ft. in which formation all previous wells had been completed. The total depth of this well was 5825 ft. Subsequent drilling has resulted in

Jan 1, 1935

By John A. Hansuld

Molybdenum presents a series of baffling geo- chemical puzzles. It can exist in six different valence states, possessing three different coordination numbers. As a result, it combines with other elements to form a wide variety of negatively and positively charged ions and complexes whose exact chemical nature are relatively unknown. Its rather complex chemistry might be described as "ambidextrous, bi-sexual and polygamous". It is little wonder then that the geochemistry of molybdenum is relatively unknown, and compared to most common metals its geochemical behavior is somewhat unique. The behavior of a particular element or metal, such as molybdenum, in a given dispersion media is largely controlled by the stability relations among its various oxidation products. Recognition of these products and an understanding of their stability relations is therefore a prerequisite to a proper understanding of its observed behavior. Because most secondary dispersion media represent aqueous chemical systems, stability relations are best expressed as functions of Eh and pH.

Jan 12, 1966

By Hugh Rose

The properties of the company lie within the Pachuca district, State of Hidalgo, Mexico, connected by three railway lines with Mexico City, 55 miles southwest, and by two lines with Vera Cruz, 250 miles southeast. The ores were formerly divided by sorting into two classes, smelting and milling, the former averaging about 2 oz. gold and 335 oz. silver, the latter 0.12 oz. gold and 23 oz. silver. The smelting ores were sold to custom plants, principally the American Smelting & Refining Co. at Aguascalientes. The milling ores were treated by the patio process at the Guadalupe Hacienda, at Pachuca. This patio was probably the largest in existence at the time and continued in active operation up to March, 1910. In January, 1910, the mines and patio were sold to English interests, represented by Camp Bird Limited. Two new companies were formed, the Compania de Santa Gertrudis, S. A., to operate the mines, and the Compania Beneficiadora de Pachuca, S. A., to build and operate a custom cyanide milling plant. (Pig. 1.) Geology The historical geology of the Pachuca district is described by Fred J. Pope as follows: 1. The most recent sedimentary rooks in the district belong to the Cretaceous period. 2. The Cretaceous rocks were penetrated by large intrusions of ande-site (referred to hereafter as primary andesite) which occur as elliptical dome-shaped masses, striking northwest-southeast. These andesite bodies are from 8 to 15 miles long and from 6 to 10 miles wide. 3. A period of erosion during which the contour of the andesite domes was changed. 4. Andesite flows (secondary andesite) which rest unconformably on the primary andesites.

Jan 1, 1917

By Ralph E. Esarey, G. F. Fix

The oil and gas industry in Indiana in 1938 showed considerable improvement over the preceding year. Most of the drilling and development during the year, as in the past several years, was in the Indiana portion of the Illinois Basin, but increasing interest was apparent in the old Trenton area, for possibilities of further production in the Trenton formation and the underlying St. Peter sandstone. Interest in all other portions of the state was at a new peak, since many areas have never been prospected. Natural gas production continued to drop during 1938, since new discoveries have not been able to keep pace with the rapid decline in older areas. Oil production increased considerably, chiefly through the discovery of new fields. Older fields contributed about the same quantity of oil during 1938 as during the preceding year. There were 159 wells completed in Indiana during 1938, an increase of 25 over the preceding year. Of these, 48 were oil wells, 41 were gas, and '70 failed to find commercial production. Forty-three, or about 20 per cent, were wildcat. Six of these were productive—three oil wells and three gas wells. Thirty-nine wells on which operations started during the year had riot been completed by Dec. 31. Fourteen others were temporarily abandoned, with the possibility that several will be drilled to completion in the near future. A new oil field (Heusler) was discovered in May 1938, in sees. 1 and 12, T. 7 S., R. 12 W., Posey County. Production was found in the Waltersburg (Upper (Chester) sandstone at a depth of approximately 1775 ft. At the close of the year, Heusler field had nine producing wells and two drilling. The Point township area, Posey County, near the confluence of the Wabash and Ohio Rivers, held promise of good production from the McClosky lime, but offsets to the, discovery well had only shows of oil. The discovery well declined rapidly in production arid was finally plugged. In the Oaktown field, Knox County, a wildcat came in with a good flow of gas, extending the field to the east, and proving considerably more acreage. A new gas area was discovered in Sullivan County, and four good wells were completed. The discovery well was in sec. 35, T. 8 N., R. 10 W., and had an initial

Jan 1, 1939

By Ralph E. Esarey, G. F. Fix

The oil and gas industry in Indiana in 1938 showed considerable improvement over the preceding year. Most of the drilling and development during the year, as in the past several years, was in the Indiana portion of the Illinois Basin, but increasing interest was apparent in the old Trenton area, for possibilities of further production in the Trenton formation and the underlying St. Peter sandstone. Interest in all other portions of the state was at a new peak, since many areas have never been prospected. Natural gas production continued to drop during 1938, since new discoveries have not been able to keep pace with the rapid decline in older areas. Oil production increased considerably, chiefly through the discovery of new fields. Older fields contributed about the same quantity of oil during 1938 as during the preceding year. There were 159 wells completed in Indiana during 1938, an increase of 25 over the preceding year. Of these, 48 were oil wells, 41 were gas, and '70 failed to find commercial production. Forty-three, or about 20 per cent, were wildcat. Six of these were productive—three oil wells and three gas wells. Thirty-nine wells on which operations started during the year had riot been completed by Dec. 31. Fourteen others were temporarily abandoned, with the possibility that several will be drilled to completion in the near future. A new oil field (Heusler) was discovered in May 1938, in sees. 1 and 12, T. 7 S., R. 12 W., Posey County. Production was found in the Waltersburg (Upper (Chester) sandstone at a depth of approximately 1775 ft. At the close of the year, Heusler field had nine producing wells and two drilling. The Point township area, Posey County, near the confluence of the Wabash and Ohio Rivers, held promise of good production from the McClosky lime, but offsets to the, discovery well had only shows of oil. The discovery well declined rapidly in production arid was finally plugged. In the Oaktown field, Knox County, a wildcat came in with a good flow of gas, extending the field to the east, and proving considerably more acreage. A new gas area was discovered in Sullivan County, and four good wells were completed. The discovery well was in sec. 35, T. 8 N., R. 10 W., and had an initial

Jan 1, 1939

By George B. Clark, John W. Brown, Hemendra N. Kalia, Ronald R. Rollins

A new theory for three dimensional collapse of conical liners shows why the two dimensional theory may offer a good approximation. Shaped charge design parameters and rock target properties were investigated to determine their effects on penetration and breakage. Penetration in dolomite is somewhat similar to that in steel, but copper does not have markedly better penetration capabilities than brass. Several metals, liner thicknesses, cone angles and standoff ranges for each were investigated. Effective standoff is greater for aluminum than more dense metals. Optimum geometry appears to approximate that for metal targets. Resistance to penetrations was greatest for a red granite and dense siliceous rocks, and least for dolomite and porous sandstone. Hardness and compressive strength appear to be two important conventional proper- ties. The first order law does not apply to the rocks tested. Dolomite may be drilled with shaped charges, the holes sprung and round blasted successfully.

Jan 1, 1971

By S. FROES ABRUE

No new oil fields were discovered in Brazil during 1945. Production for the year reached a total of 79.329 bbl., all coming from the four fields in the Baia basin; the Lobato-Joanes field produced 6728 bbl.; Aratu, 6717 bbl.; Candeias, 36,663 bbl. and Itaparica, 29,211 bbl. The total cumulative production from the Baia basin from 1939 to 1945 inclusive amounts to 210,000 bbl., all of which is utilized locally.

Jan 1, 1946

By N. LILIENBERGS

DURING the past few years, the requirements for steel have been raised so high that soundness is more important than ever before. The old practice was to mike steel ingots of sufficiently large sections to permit a considerable reduction of area in rolling and hammering to a given size, relying on the fact that by such rolling and hammering all cavities will be squeezed together and practically eliminated. The finished sizes, if found by inspection of the surface to be faultless, were therefore pronounced to be sound. But when such steel is ?worked up,? the manufacturer is surprised and disappointed to find that it splits, or that streaks and seams make the product unmarketable. Large sections, such as rails, beams or heavy forgings, may, within certain limits, be sufficiently strong, even if the sides of the cavities are only squeezed, and not welded together. But it is well known that, in the interior of heavy articles, under certain conditions, forging may develop small streaks into large cavities. Small sections, steel for ordnance and tubes, and numberless articles in the tool-trade, always show up the defects. It may be doubted whether cavities in steel ingots can ever be completely welded. The old theory, is, that the silver-clear blow-holes, without the blue oxide, can be welded by sufficient working. They are, however, not empty, but are filled with carbonic oxide. It is admitted that the "blue" cavities, resulting from air mechanically drawn down into the mold during the casting, can never be welded, because the oxide does not melt, and there would be no escape for it if it did. The only way in which steel can be made satisfactory for the above-named particular purposes is by having it ?dead molten." But then the trouble of piping is encountered. As is well known, a pipe is the result of the contraction of

May 1, 1906

By Lester C. Uren

Tars paper reviews the industrial trends and changes in educational concepts that have led to the development of the modern petroleum engineering curriculum. A trend toward emphasis on engineering fundamentals is noted. While most universities are committed to the traditional four-year engineering program, it is agreed that more than four years is necessary for academic preparation of the petroleum engineer in all phases of his profession. The author proposes a coordinated program of undergraduate and graduate training that will permit of adherence to the general pattern of the present four-year engineering course, with provision for extension of the program into specialized graduate courses of professional character. In the latter, emphasis may vary with the interests and objectives of the individual student. A specific undergraduate curriculum is proposed in which upward of 80 per cent of the available time is devoted to engineering fundamentals. A broad survey of the professional field is afforded in courses grouped in the third and fourth undergraduate years, but detailed treatment of the professional aspects of petroleum engineering is reserved for the graduate program. INTRODUCTION Of necessity, engineering curricula must ever be changing to reflect the new techniques, the changing concepts that are presented as the engineering industries develop and unfold. Particularly is this true of the younger engineering curricula representing comparatively new and rapidly changing industries such as the petroleum industry. Institutions that planned their petroleum engineering curricula a decade or two ago now find that the petroleum industry has become vastly more technical in its requirements. En¬tirely new methods and techniques have come into vogue and must be given place in the curriculum, and some of these are of a character that demands changing emphasis in the fundamental preparatory subjects. College and university faculties cannot complacently assume that curricula in this field that were considered appropriate 10 or 20 years ago still reflect the needs of the industry that they are designed to serve. If they do, their graduates will be poorly equipped to meet the requirements imposed upon them by a rapidly changing industry. Perhaps it is not too much to expect academic authorities to anticipate the trends of industry and equip their graduates with what they will need to attain leadership 10 or 20 years after graduation. Whether or not this desirable objective is possible, there is no excuse for allowing curricula to fall behind the current needs of industry. DURATION OF CURRICULUM The majority of our engineering schools and colleges still adhere to the four-year curricula and there appears to be a definite sentiment among many engineers engaged in industry that work should be so planned that the engineering student may secure the essential academic preparation for his profession in a terminal four-year program. Yet, in recent years, it has become increasingly apparent that four years of

Jan 1, 1941