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By S. S. Arentz

PLANNED health and safety programs have become an essential part of American industry because such programs lead to increased operating efficiency, improved labor relations, better public relations, and to substantial savings in compensation insurance. Those of you who have had the unpleasant duty of informing the wife or widow of one of your men of his serious injury or death while on the job, know that all the benefits of a successful safety program do not show on the balance S. S. ARENTZ, Member AIME, is General Superintendent, Nevada Operations, Combined Metals Reduction Co., Pioche, Nevada. AIME San Francisco Meeting, February 1949. TP 2741 A. Discussion of this paper (2 copies) may be sent to Transactions AIME before March 31, 1950. Manuscript received Jan. 6, 1949. sheet. These programs are of particular importance to the mining ,industry because mining's reputation as an unusually hazardous industry and the commonly isolated location of mining operations tend to focus attention on these problems. Description of Operations: Before proceeding with a discussion of our health and safety programs at Pioche, it may be proper to give a brief description of Pioche and of our operations there. Pioche is one of the early Nevada mining camps. It was founded shortly after the discovery of high grade silver ore in 1863 and mining has continued with more or less regularity to the present day. In an era of lawlessness, Pioche was notorious. The story persists that 75 men died with their boots on before one died a natural death, and old payroll records show that nearly as many gunmen were employed to stand off claim jumpers as there were miners working the mine. That was probably as close to a safety program as the times permitted. Pioche is situated in southeastern Nevada on the main highway between Ely and Las Vegas. The camp is on the flank of "Treasure Hill," near the original silver discovery, at an elevation of about 6000 ft. The present day population of about 2000 is primarily dependent upon the mines of the area, although Pioche also serves as the county seat of Lincoln Couqty and as the center of the surrounding livestock industry. The camp is served by a branch of the Union Pacific Railroad and receives power from the generators at Hoover Dam. The Pioche operations of the Combined Metals Reduction Co. were started in 1923 when the first complex lead-zinc ore was shipped to the company's mill at Bauer, Utah. The modern mill at Pioche was completed in 1941. The operations are medium sized in the nonferrous field, employing an average of 350 men in the mine, mill, and related works. The complex lead-zinc ore is mined from replacement deposits in a comparatively flat, extensively faulted, limestone horizon. Mining methods vary from stull-supported open stopes to filled square-set stopes. The thin bedded limestone and shale overlying the ore is allowed to cave as areas are mined out and caving frequently follows closely upon ore extraction. The relatively heavy ground and the numerous faults add to the problems of safe mining. The mine is well mechanized and the mill and surface plant are modern and well equipped. Labor is organized in a C.I.O. union and labor-management relations have been unusually harmonious. During most of the period since 1923 a competent supervisory staff worked to reduce safety hazards but the primary responsibility for safety rested on the individual workman. Accidents happened and all too frequently they were regarded by all concerned as unavoidable. In October 1939, the late Robert L. Dean became superintendent at Pioche. Most of his previous experience had been in the fields of iron and coal mining and from that experience he brought the concept that no accident is unavoidable. Many of the features of our present health and safety programs were initiated by Mr. Dean during his term as superintendent. Health Program: Our health program centers in Dr. Q. E. Fortier and his new, well-equipped, and well-staffed, modern hospital in Pioche. The program starts with a thorough pre-employment physical examination and is followed by yearly re-examinations at the expense of the company. The Pioche Mutual Benefit Association, to which all Pioche mine operators and employees belong, pays benefits covering hospitalization and surgery expense incurred by employee members and their families. The Association is governed by a board of directors elected by its members. The mine operators of the district donated the original capital and pay the monthly dues of the employee members. The employees pay the dues covering members of their families. Though not strictly a part of the

Jan 1, 1951

By Benjamin LeRoy Miller, Joseph T. Singewald

The ore deposits at Firmeza have been worked continuously since 1884; those at Daiquiri since 1895. It is surprising, therefore, that they have not been the object of careful geologic study until quite recently. It is true that considerable attention was paid to these deposits by A. C. Spencer, in 1901, in the report on the geology of Cuba, by Hayes, Vaughan, and Spencer,l but this was only incidental to a hasty general reconnaissance of the Island. As far as the Daiquiri deposits are concerned, this gap has been filled by the appearance of the two papers by Prof. James F. Kemp2 and by Prof. Waldemar Lind-gren and Clyde P. Ross respectively.3 Max Roesler, first holder of the Emmons fellowship, made a detailed study of the Firmeza deposits during the past summer, so that soon we can expect a full description of them. Consequently, there is no, demand at the present time for a description of the deposits from other sources, and that is not the purpose of this paper. The papers on Daiquiri, however, leave unsolved problems in regard to the age of the rocks of the district and certain phases of the genesis of the deposits, and it is with the hope of aiding in the solution of some of these problems that this contribution is offered. Kemp, and Lindgren and Ross agree in assigning these deposits to the type of contact metamorphic deposits. They disagree in part on the question of their localization. The deposits occur in an extensive area of diorite which includes numerous blocks of limestone, and sometimes are found in the contact zones between these blocks and the diorite, and in other instances are completely enveloped in the diorite, showing no apparent connection with the limestone. The latter class includes

Jan 1, 1916

By J. M. Hartman

ONE of the most important subjects to the blast-furnace engineer is a thorough knowledge of the conditions affecting the temperature in the different portions of the furnace. All efforts to decrease the consumption of fuel and improve the working of the furnace must be based upon it, and I may, therefore, be permitted to place before you the results of my observations, and detail the conclusions to which they have led me. Tracing the thermic conditions from below upwards we have at the bottom of a blast furnace making No. 3 iron a temperature of 2900' F., which increases slightly to a point a little below the tuyeres. In the immediate vicinity of the tuyeres the temperature is somewhat lower, owing to the entering blast; but a short distance above the tuyeres, where all the oxygen of the blast has been converted into carbonic acid, the highest temperature in the furnace must be attained. This carbonic acid is, however, almost as soon as formed, converted by the glowing coal into carbonic oxide, a process which absorb, heat, reduces the temperature, and provides the active agent for the reduction of the iron ores. In its ascent the hot carbonic oxide gradually parts with its heat, first melting the descending iron and earthy materials, which drop down to the hearth of the furnace. The limit of this zone of fusion is rather sharply defined, and the temperature above this zone suddenly decreases. In its further ascent the hot gas drives off the carbonic acid from the limestone, which causes a further absorption of heat, and finally the gas escapes at the top, at a ternperature of about 250' F. if the furnace is working well. These changes of temperature I have attempted to represent graphically,

Jan 1, 1880

By R. O. Day, R. S. Dean

In constructing a theory of the flow and hardening of metals, v necessarily make use of such phenomena as seem to be universal1 observed in metals. It is, therefore, a matter of concern to the con structors of such mnemonic systems if one or two of the group classific as metals show anomalous behavior. Such egregious phenomena observed in pure or nearly pure iron in the reaction of its mechanic properties to low-temperature annealing after cold work and to increase temperature of testing. In short it has been generally observcd tha iron, as an outstanding exception among metals, increases its hardnes and strength by low-temperature annealing after cold work,' and alt by increase of testing temperature to the range of 150" to 300" C. The investigation here recorded was made then with the object ( ascertaining if similar phenomena were observed in high-purity iro and, if not, to the presence of which impurities these phenomena coul be traced. Experimental Procedure Three kinds of iron were taken for a study of hardening by rehcatin after cold work: 1. Vacuum-melted electrolytic iron; melted in an Arsem furnace in a magnesia crucible. That this iron was of high purity is indicated b a magnetic permeability above 20,000. 2. Electrolytic iron melted in air in a small laboratory furnace. 3. Armco iron, commercial material. These materials in the form of forged bars, annealed at 980" C. in vacuum, were reduced 30 per cent. in thickness by cold rolling and the reheated to temperatures varying from 100' to 500' C. The Rockwe hardness number was measured after each treatment. The results and shown in Fig. 1, curves 1, 2 and 3.

Jan 1, 1929

By Dorsey Hager, G. W. McPherson

The rapid increase of water troubles in the Mid-Continent oil fields is causing much alarm. Troubles occur at Towanda, Eldorado, Augusta, Cushing, Blackwell, and Healdton, although they had not been acute in the Mid-Continent field until about two years ago, when the unusual conditions in the deeper oil fields were first encountered. California faced the same situation, but, thanks to aggressive measures, has largely overcome the dangers. The following analysis of water trouble may throw some light on the subject and be of assistance in solving the problems involved. Water Troutles Classified The presence of water in large quantities in oil sands has the following results: 1. Diminishes oil production. 2. Diminishes casing-head gasoline production: (a) By curtailing the gas flow. (b) By making the use of vacuum pumps unsuccessful. 3. Increases lifting costs: (a) By making it necessary to pump large quantities of water, which requires a fast motion and long stroke (third hole). (b) By requiring the use of compressors for air lift. (c) By causing break-downs and delays due to the high speed necessary to pump water. (d) By making it necessary to treat "cut" or emulsified oil. Oil production is seriously curtailed by the presence of large quantities of water. Lease records show that wells are shut down 40 to 60 per cent, of the pumping time where serious water trouble occurs. While a small quantity of salt water may cut the paraffine and keep the oil moving, several hundred feet, or a hole full of water, effectually "kills" the oil and gas. The quick return of wells to production, once the water is shut off, shows how wells have been affected. The killing of gas sands

Jan 1, 1920

By M. Cohen, D. Caplan

The scaling characteristics of three Fe-Cr alloys have been investigated by determining their weight gain vs. time curves at 1600° to 2000° F. The scales formed thereby have been examined using the techniques of X-ray diffraction and spectrographic and metal-lographic analyses in an attempt to explain the discontinuities in the curves and to elucidate the mechanism of scaling. DESPITE the considerable number of investigations that have been carried out on heat resistant alloys, the characteristics of the scales formed at high temperatures are not fully known. The research reported here was undertaken in an attempt to ascertain the mechanism of scaling of the stainless steels. Scaling experiments were carried out first, the weight increase of the specimens being followed continuously with time. It was observed that, as well as showing the expected decrease in oxidation rate with time, the oxidation curves showed breaks corresponding to intermediate periods of accelerated oxidation, after which protectiveness again increased. This phenomenon was observed with austenitic stainless steels (types 302, 309, and 330) and with Fe-Cr alloys (types 410, 430, and 446), but only the latter are treated in this report. An examination of the scales was made using the techniques of X-ray diffraction and spectrographic and metallographic analyses in an attempt to obtain a correlation between the nature of the scales and the oxidation curves. A search through the literature revealed only a very few previous reports of such periods of accelerated oxidation. Dunn' found breaks in the oxidation-time curves of some Cu-Si alloys but saw no rational explanation of the phenomenon. Heindlhofer and Larsen2 attributed a discontinuity in the weight gain-time curve of iron at 1290°F to the formation of blisters, the subsequent cracking of which exposed an unprotected surface and permitted rapid oxidation until a new protective scale had been reestablished. They advanced no explanation, however, for what they termed the peculiar behavior of a 27 pct Fe-Cr alloy at 2000°F which gained weight very rapidly in between two periods of very slow weight gain. Portevin, Pretet, and Jolivet3 in describing breaks in the weight gain-time curves of Fe-A1 alloys suggested that they might be associated with the occurrence of localized and deeply oxidized areas on the specimens. Bandel4 in a general discussion of oxidation curves of heat resistant alloys considered that the discontinuities were due to a local disruption of the protective layer by the growth of iron-rich oxides. Day and Smith" in their report on the scaling of a large number of iron alloys noted but did not explain occasional relatively rapid changes in oxidation rate at higher temperatures. Chevenard and Wache6 found breaks, often two per specimen, in the oxidation curves of an 18-8 type alloy. They suggested that the cause might be a depletion in chromium of the surface layer of metal due to its selective oxidation, the resultant high concentration of iron and nickel in the scale leading to a poorly protective scale. McCullough, Fontana, and Beck' explained the breaks in the oxidation curves of types 304, 430, and 410 alloys as due to mechanical ruptures. Experimental Work Table I lists the chemical compositions of the materials used. Cylindrical specimens 1/4 in. in diam and 11/2 in. long were machined from cold rolled % in. rod. After a fine finish cut with a sharp tool, the specimens were abraded while still mounted on the lathe with Nos. 2, 1, 0, and 00 metallographic grade emery papers. A 3/64 in. hole was drilled at a distance of 1/8 in. from one end to permit suspension in the furnace. Specimen Nos. 1, 2, and 3 were tested with this surface preparation. All others, after being similarly prepared, were electropolished in a perchloric-acetic electrolyte, electrical contact being made by pressing a tapered platinum hook into the drilled hole. The specimens were then washed in hot water, rinsed with distilled water, rinsed with methanol, dried at 120°F, and weighed. Thereafter,

Jan 1, 1953

By Allan J. Clark, W. J. Sharwood

When the cyanide process came into general use, late in the nineteenth century, chlorination was quickly supplanted, but amalgamation yielded place more slowly, being still the major process at many plants, where it is followed by cyanidation of the tailings. The research work of the Denny brothers in South Africa' was probably the most important contribution of its time to the metallurgy of gold. By grading analyses of mill products, they pointed to the necessity of fine grinding to accomplish maximum extraction by cyanide. The work here described is merely an extension of the Dennys' method. Developing the fine-grinding principle, the steps of "crushing in solution" and of "all-sliming" were logical sequels, though both had been attempted early in the history of the cyanide process. Crushing in solution introduced certain complications in amalgamation; when "all-sliming " was adopted it was observed that the omission of amalgamation did not materially affect the total recovery. Thus the field of the older process has become much restricted, being at present confined to ores which, yielding freely to amalgamation, either are too low in grade to show an economic advantage in "all-sliming," or present chemical or other difficulties making the use of cyanide solution unadvisable during the crushing and preparation of the ore. South African ores are typical of the former class; Homestake ores are of both classes, but even in these instances the amalgamation work is being curtailed and greater burdens thrown on the cyanide plants. It is obvious that the time required for the dissolution of gold depends on the size of its particles. In an effort to determine the critical size, the following laboratory method was evolved. A standard amalgamation test2 had already been established, which involves the agitation of about 100 gm. of ore with 20 gm. of pure mercury, the latter then being separated and its gold contents determined. This method was applied directly to certain mill products with interesting results, a few of which may be noted here. The column "Free Gold" gives the value per ton thus amalgamated, as against the " Total Gold " determined by fire assay.

Jan 1, 1923

By W. S. Ayres

The boiler from which these stay-bolts have just been obtained was that of the locomotive Catasauqtia, Lehigh Valley Railroad, built at the company's shops, South Easton, Pa., in 1864. The iron is Lowmoor, and has been in use nearly ten years. The stay-bolts have become highly crystallized from some cause, and are very brittle, only requiring three blows of an ordinary machinist's hammer to break them. On the other hand, when annealed they are remarkably tough, as shown by the doubled sample. The majority of the broken bolts were found to be along the curve of the shell from a to c, Fig. 6. All of them were broken just inside the shell, and in no case next the fire-box. The fractures seem to have been of slow procedure, beginning at the top of the bolt, gradually working deeper and deeper until the pressure of steam overcame the tenacity of the remaining parts. Unequal contraction and expansion of the parts of the boiler seems in this case to be the only existing cause for a fracture. We cannot, from the data obtained, prove to an absolute certainty the manner in which the combined forces generated by the unequal contraction and expansion of the parts have arrived at their resultant work ; but we can, from these data and from existing circumstances, arrive at what seems to be a fair supposition, and thus at least anticipate the truth. The contraction and expansion in locomotive boilers has a large range between its extremes, and is very variable, both with reference to time and to their component parts. The shell and fire-box do not, perhaps, at any time, contract and expand at the same rate, nor proportionally; but, on the contrary, owing to the great changes in temperature that take place both in the atmosphere around the shell, and in the fire in the fire-box, their condition is often changed suddenly, and widely from that which they just previously had. This racking tendency produces strains in the different parts, and it is fair to suppose that the continual motion of the two

By Allan J. Clark, W. J. Sharwood

When the cyanide process came into general use, late in the nineteenth century, chlorination was quickly supplanted, but amalgamation yielded place more slowly, being still the major process at many plants, where it is followed by cyanidation of the tailings. The research work of the Denny brothers in South Africa' was probably the most important contribution of its time to the metallurgy of gold. By grading analyses of mill products, they pointed to the necessity of fine grinding to accomplish maximum extraction by cyanide. The work here described is merely an extension of the Dennys' method. Developing the fine-grinding principle, the steps of "crushing in solution" and of "all-sliming" were logical sequels, though both had been attempted early in the history of the cyanide process. Crushing in solution introduced certain complications in amalgamation; when "all-sliming " was adopted it was observed that the omission of amalgamation did not materially affect the total recovery. Thus the field of the older process has become much restricted, being at present confined to ores which, yielding freely to amalgamation, either are too low in grade to show an economic advantage in "all-sliming," or present chemical or other difficulties making the use of cyanide solution unadvisable during the crushing and preparation of the ore. South African ores are typical of the former class; Homestake ores are of both classes, but even in these instances the amalgamation work is being curtailed and greater burdens thrown on the cyanide plants. It is obvious that the time required for the dissolution of gold depends on the size of its particles. In an effort to determine the critical size, the following laboratory method was evolved. A standard amalgamation test2 had already been established, which involves the agitation of about 100 gm. of ore with 20 gm. of pure mercury, the latter then being separated and its gold contents determined. This method was applied directly to certain mill products with interesting results, a few of which may be noted here. The column "Free Gold" gives the value per ton thus amalgamated, as against the " Total Gold " determined by fire assay.

Jan 1, 1923

By James Humes

The active mines in the Park City district at the present time are the Silver King Coalition, Daly-Judge, Daly West, and Silver King Consolidated. Several other companies, such as the Daly, American Flag, Ontario, etc., are doing considerable development work. In the Silver King Coalition mines the ore is a replacement of a dark siliceous limestone bed, varying in .thickness from 18 in. to several feet. In places the ore has reached a thickness of 25 ft. This limestone bed lies within 100 ft. of the underlying Weber quartzite. There are other lime beds, similar in appearance to this one, in the Park City formation, which is approximately 700 ft. thick; but not one of them has been found to contain any traces of ore. Directly under and in contact with the ore-bearing bed is another, composed of gray lime well studded with dark concretionary nodules; and this one is an unfailing indication of the proximity of the ore-bearing bed. These ore deposits make out from or have connection with some one of the ore-bearing fissures, which were undoubtedly the channels for the circulation of mineral-bearing solutions. It is therefore proper to run prospecting drifts in the fissures, although they seldom contain much ore. As a general rule, drifting in the fissures is not costly. Mining and mucking cost from $2.50 to $4 per foot, and very little timber is required. There are instances, as in the Daly fissure in the Daly-Judge mine, where the expense of keeping drifts open in the fissure is so great that it has proved economical to make the drifts in the foot-wall rock and run crosscuts into the fissure at short intervals. In the Park City mines it is not easy to determine beforehand the best method fir extracting the ore from a newly discovered ore shoot in the bedded deposits. While we may get one dimension from the drift run in the fissure, that will not give us a correct idea as to the other dimensions of the orebody. The fissures here referred to have a N. 35" E.

Jan 1, 1915

By Chase Palmer, Edson S. Bastin

While the reducing action of organic matter, of ferrous sulphate, and of hydrogen sulphide has frequently been invoked to account for the deposition of native gold and silver from ore-forming solutions, the high efficiency in this respect of certain of the metallic minerals which form the ore itself has not been suffciently recognized. If a little finely powdered chalcocite is placed in a test-tube arid 2 or 3 cc. of a dilute solution of gold chloride are poured over it, two or three shakes of the tube suffice to remove all the gold from the solution. The color of the solution changes from yellow to pale green, showing that copper is dissolved simultaneously with the precipitation of metallic gold. If a piece of chalcocite is hung in a dilute aqueous solution of silver sulphate (1/40 normal), a coating of silver begins immediately to form on the mineral, and within a few moments a beautiful silver tree has developed, similar to that formed when metallic zinc is immersed in a similar solution. When similar experiments are conducted with other sulphides and with certain arsenides and sulph-arsenides, especially those known to be commonly associated with native silver in ore deposits, it is found that these minerals differ greatly in their efficiency as precipitants, especially in their effect on silver solutions. The tests made with most of the minerals were qualitatipe only, but the reactions of a silver sulphate solution on chalcocite and niccolite were submitted to quantitative study to determine the nature of the reactions involved. Quantitative studies of the reactions with other minerals are now in progress

Jan 1, 1914

By Kenneth Cottingham

The area described herein is situated on what is known as the Arches Fork anticline in Roane and Calhoun Counties, W. Va. When the area was first mapped, it was felt that well records would give a more intimate idea of conditions, both structural and lithologic, than could be expected from surface horizons. The surface formations are chiefly members of the Monongahela series, though northward the hilltop outcrops are those of the Dunkard. Neither series offen a key horizon sufficiently definite to be satisfactory, although the structure as determined from well records was later checked against two of the more persistent surface sandstones. In mapping the subsurface structure, the top of the Big Lime (Green-brier) was employed as the key horizon. The average depth to the top of the Big Lime varies from 1600 to 2000 ft. (487 to 609 m.), while the average thickness as indicated by well records is 113 ft. (34 m.). The oil-producing formation is the Big Injun, lying just below the Big Lime. In two instances, well records show the Lime and Injun separated by a few feet of "break." The Big Injun is recorded as having a variable thickness. Seven logs report it as missing and one gives it the maximum thickness of 105 ft. (32 m.), while the entire average for thickness is 19 ft. (6 m.). Relation of Structure to Thickness of Big Injun The seven wells reporting the Big Injun as absent were located near the anticlinal axis. Moreover, the general tendency is a thickening of the Injun on the flanks of the anticline, increasing with distance from the axis. Manifestly, this apparent anomaly has no stratigraphic basis, as the actual thickness of the Big Injun and the overlying Big Lime was determined by original deposition which no amount of subsequent folding could appreciably alter. Fig. 1 is a skeleton map of structure based on the top of the Big Lime; Fig. 2 is a cross-section showing the thickness of the Big Injun.

Jan 1, 1923

By Stanley C. Herold

At the present time five localities in the Argentine Republic are known to bear direct evidences of the presence of petroleum. The segregation of these localities is more or less arbitrary inasmuch as minor indications may be found to extend from one locality to the other at no regular distance apart, especially in the northern and western part of the republic. These localities are listed as follows: North Argentine-Bolivian region, Salta-Jujuy district, provinces of Mendoza and Neuquen, Comodoro Rivadavia, and the Gallegos-Punta Arenas region. Economic conditions attract us to the possibilities of developing these and other regions of countries in the southern hemisphere. Development work will, naturally, be undertaken first in such localities as present direct manifestations of the presence of petroleum; "hidden fields" may exist, but, unless discovered by accident, their development will be left to the last. The problems to be solved in the development of the petroleum resources of the Argentine republic are mainly of stratigraphy, structure, and transportation. We are not here concerned with the unfavorable climate of the countries to the north in the tropics where, for us of the "far north," life hangs by a thread ready to be severed by a mosquito, gnat, or tropical germ. North Argentine-Bolivian Region The North Argentine-Bolivian region has already been described by the author.' Geographically and geologically this is admittedly one field extending from Argentine into Bolivia. It is not necessary to repeat here the various conditions pertaining to this field, though the summary may be quoted as follows: Extending from northern Argentine northward into central Bolivia is a belt of petroleum seepages. On account of the remoteness of the district it has, heretofore, been little considered by oil operators. The regional geology is comparatively well understood but the local features have not been carefully detailed. Development work in the past has been done on an unscientific basis and has led to failures. At the present time, access to the region is somewhat difficult but, no

Jan 1, 1921

By Edward W. Parker

At the Cleveland meeting of the Institute, October, 1912, I had occasion to call attention to the general though erroneous impression that the principal mining activities of the United States lie west of the 100th meridian of longitude. Few, I believe, realize that the States east of the Mississippi river, which comprise only 28.8 per cent. of the total area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska, contribute about two-thirds of the total mineral production, computing by values. In 1910 the percentage of the production credited to the Eastern States was 67; in 1911 it was 65. When I have, with becoming modesty, ventured to speak of these comparisons, I have usually been met with the rejoinder, " But you include coal." I surely do, for whereas coal (m petroleum, as natural gas, as limestone) is not in the strictly technical definition of the word, a " mineral," it is legally mineral, is certainly a mineral substance, and contributes by far the largest tonnage and approximately one-third of the total value of all mineral products. The production of coal-mines in 1911 weighed approximately 500,000,000 tons. In 1912 it exceeded that record by nearly, if not quite, 50,000,000 tons. According to H. D. McCaskey, of the U. S. Geological Survey, the total weight of all the metallic ores mined in the United States in 1911 was 105,000,000 tons (a little more than one-fifth that of coal). In 1910 Mr. Lindgren estimated the total weight of all metallic ores at 120,000,000 tons. The products of the quarries, clay-pits, oil-wells, phosphate-mines, and other non-metallic products, taken all together, did not in 1911 weigh in excess of 300,000,000 tons, so that the output of coal exceeds by 25 per cent. the combined tonnage of all other mineral products. The coal-mines give to

Jan 1, 1914

By Kenneth Cottingham

The area described herein is situated on what is known as the Arches Fork anticline in Roane and Calhoun Counties, W. Va. When the area was first mapped, it was felt that well records would give a more intimate idea of conditions, both structural and lithologic, than could be expected from surface horizons. The surface formations are chiefly members of the Monongahela series, though northward the hilltop outcrops are those of the Dunkard. Neither series offen a key horizon sufficiently definite to be satisfactory, although the structure as determined from well records was later checked against two of the more persistent surface sandstones. In mapping the subsurface structure, the top of the Big Lime (Green-brier) was employed as the key horizon. The average depth to the top of the Big Lime varies from 1600 to 2000 ft. (487 to 609 m.), while the average thickness as indicated by well records is 113 ft. (34 m.). The oil-producing formation is the Big Injun, lying just below the Big Lime. In two instances, well records show the Lime and Injun separated by a few feet of "break." The Big Injun is recorded as having a variable thickness. Seven logs report it as missing and one gives it the maximum thickness of 105 ft. (32 m.), while the entire average for thickness is 19 ft. (6 m.). Relation of Structure to Thickness of Big Injun The seven wells reporting the Big Injun as absent were located near the anticlinal axis. Moreover, the general tendency is a thickening of the Injun on the flanks of the anticline, increasing with distance from the axis. Manifestly, this apparent anomaly has no stratigraphic basis, as the actual thickness of the Big Injun and the overlying Big Lime was determined by original deposition which no amount of subsequent folding could appreciably alter. Fig. 1 is a skeleton map of structure based on the top of the Big Lime; Fig. 2 is a cross-section showing the thickness of the Big Injun.

Jan 1, 1923

By W. T. Thom

In previous classifications of coal, it has been customary to regard moisture eliminated from coal samples between 20 and 100 C. as extraneous matter, rather than as a constituent part of the coal. It seems, however, that the physical character and use properties of the low-rank coals are directly related to the amount of such moisture present, and recent chemical work has shown' that such coals contain unstable groupings which decompose between 20 C. and temperatures somewhat above 100" C., with the splitting off of moisture. According to this view, the moisture eliminated from air-dried coal below boiling point is similar in all essential respects to moisture eliminated above 100" C., and is produced by analogous reactions; and inasmuch as the moisture given off above 100" C. has always been treated as a constituent of the volatile matter of coal, it would seem that consistent usage would include as a part of the volatile matter all moisture present as an essential component of the coal as it occurs in nature. As a matter of experience, it seems clear that the general physical and chemical characteristics of the low-rank coals are largely determined by or related to the moisture, whether chemically or physically combined, present in air-dried coal; it is also demonstrable by trial that the low-rank coals cannot be satisfactorily classified on a purely chemical basis by using the moisture free form of analysis. The low-rank coals of the western United States include numerous well-defined types, many of which were referred to in a classification proposed by Ashley,2 in which the physical and use properties of the coals were made the primary basis for their systematic grouping. When testing this classification by replotting analyses of these type coals according to the Seyler scheme of classification,3 a satisfactory parallelism between use properties and chemical constitution of the dry coal was found among

Jan 1, 1925

By R. W. H. Acherson

Blast-furnace flue dust is one of the most troublesome operating factors in the iron and steel industry. It is usually involved in all the unpleasant phases of blast-furnace operations. It adds to our aggravations until we are willing to spend large sums of money to keep it out of our stoves and boilers and more money to handle it again and again on one scheme or another to induce the furnaces to retain it without bad after effects. Several successful operators claim that it is useless to recharge raw flue dust because the furnace would never have blown it out if it had been suitable material for blast-furnace consumption. Most of us who have made persistent efforts to return raw flue dust to the furnaces have decided that it is very often false economy to do so. Yet some remarkable results have been attained at the Ohio Works of the Carnegie Steel Co. through recharging raw dust. The plant comprises six modern blast furnaces. Up to 1909, about 300,000 tons of flue dust had accumulated in stock piles. During the last 10 years, there have been recharged into these furnaces all of the flue dust recovered from the furnace operations, the entire stock pile of Rue dust, and nearly 80,000 tons of dust shipped from other furnaces of the Carnegie Steel Co. The results obtained arc. shown in Table 1.

Jan 1, 1922

By H. Foster Bain

[Secretary's NoTE.—This paper, presented in oral abstract at the San Francisco meeting, was not at first supposed by Mr. Rain to be required for publication in the Transactions; and the excursion to Japan, in which he took part, immediately after the San Francisco meeting, delayed his presentation of the manuscript. After his return to San Francisco, Mr. Bain, in view of the importance of his paper and its discussion, kindly furnished it in full. The delay in its publication (since it was received in April last) has been due, partly to the circumstance that other contributions had meanwhile acquired the " right of way," and partly to the consideration that, the situation contemplated in Mr. Bain's paper having remained practically unchanged, the paper and its discussion would not lose force or timeliness by this lapse of time.—J. S. ] No acute observer of public affairs can have failed to observe a growing disposition on the part of the public to change emphasis in government from political equality to social justice. When our own government was founded it was felt to be sufficient to secure to each individual the fullest possible freedom of opportunity, and such a scheme was excellently adapted to the rapid development of a large territory having a small population. As the number of people in a given area increases, there are more points of contact and conflict; each must move in a smaller orbit, and there must be more regula-

Jan 1, 1913

By R. W. H. Acherson

Blast-furnace flue dust is one of the most troublesome operating factors in the iron and steel industry. It is usually involved in all the unpleasant phases of blast-furnace operations. It adds to our aggravations until we are willing to spend large sums of money to keep it out of our stoves and boilers and more money to handle it again and again on one scheme or another to induce the furnaces to retain it without bad after effects. Several successful operators claim that it is useless to recharge raw flue dust because the furnace would never have blown it out if it had been suitable material for blast-furnace consumption. Most of us who have made persistent efforts to return raw flue dust to the furnaces have decided that it is very often false economy to do so. Yet some remarkable results have been attained at the Ohio Works of the Carnegie Steel Co. through recharging raw dust. The plant comprises six modern blast furnaces. Up to 1909, about 300,000 tons of flue dust had accumulated in stock piles. During the last 10 years, there have been recharged into these furnaces all of the flue dust recovered from the furnace operations, the entire stock pile of Rue dust, and nearly 80,000 tons of dust shipped from other furnaces of the Carnegie Steel Co. The results obtained arc. shown in Table 1.

Jan 1, 1922

The Committee, appointed early in May, met and organized in Washington, May 9, 1923, and were then advised that such data as they required would as far as obtainable be submitted to them in tabulations, and that they could not be allowed to see the individual reports nor know the identity of the operators on whose reports the figures submitted were based, therefore the Committee's valuation is based on data received from your statisticians, and on tonnages estimated by your staff and by the United States Geological Survey. Various methods of valuation for mining properties have been suggested, but all authorities seem to agree in accepting, as the fairest and most practicable and logical, a capitalization of the estimated future earnings, when such estimate can reasonably be made. Hoover and Finlay both emphasize this. The United States Supreme Court says in Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Railway Co., v. Backus, 154 U. S. 439: But the value of the property results from the use to which it is put and varies with the profitableness of that use, present and prospective, actual and anticipated. There is no pecuniary value outside of that which results from such use. The amount and profitable character of such use determines the value. The Committee on Federal Taxation of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, appointed in 1919, in its report states: A proper value of a mining property is the present value of the prospective net earnings, taking into account probable variations in output and value. Ingalls ("Wealth and Income of the American People," p. 97) says: The fundamental principle of mine valuation is the present worth of an annual dividend accruing during the period of years corresponding with the lie of the mine. It is a convention that the estimated period shall not be more than 30 years.

Jan 1, 1924