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.MAX ROESLER, Firmeza, Oriente, Cuba (communication to the Secretary?).-It is substantially admitted by all who have recently been in touch with these deposits that the orebodies lie in the fine-grained dark-green rocks, called diorite by most writers and diabasic by myself. The three points of disagreement concern the agency of included limestone blocks as causes of deposition, the agency of the

Jan 5, 1917

By Thomas F. Donnelly

Discussion of the paper of THOMAS F. DONNELLY, presented at the San Francisco meeting, September, 1915, and printed in Bulletin No. 104, August, 1915, pp. 1759 to 1768. F. LYNWOOD GARRISON, Philadelphia, Pa. (communication to the Secretary *).-The paper is of value in giving the public some first-hand information regarding a copper property that from various causes has attracted considerable attention, especially in Philadelphia, and which has also been the source of several fantastic flotations that had little to recommend them. Since 1906, no work has been done on this property under my direction, with the exception of a topographic survey made last winter by Mr. Donnelly, which was intended as the first step in a sound and logical system of development. From 1906 to 1915, desultory attempts were made to develop these orebodies, but as the work was not in competent hands much money was wasted and even more disappeared in ways regarding which it is perhaps not best to inquire. The result is, this interesting property has now practically no more ore developed upon it than in 1906, despite the fact that a new 100-ton mill is being erected, although, as I have intimated, it is today not much more than a prospect. Turning now to the scientific and more agreeable side of the subject, it is interesting to note that these Santo Domingo copper ores are invariably found in volcanic tuffs and that, in a geologic sense, they are all very old, for there are no evidences of recent volcanic activity in the greater Antilles, of which this island is the second largest. The existence of copper in tuffs in different parts of the world is a notable fact. Often, if not usually, it is present in mere traces, but not infrequently we find it in sufficient amount to be of economic importance. Thus, for example, chalcopyrite and bornite occur in the Tertiary tuffs of Japan, and a number of producing copper mines of that country are either actually in, or closely associated with, rocks of this character. Whether the copper minerals are original primary ores in the tuffs, or were derived from accompanying eruptive dikes, appears not yet to have been determined in any instance. In most of the Japanese cases of which I can find any record the tuffs appear to be associated with shales and limestones. These Japanese copper ores also carry some gold, especially in the upper parts of the veins; in this they resemble the Santo Domingo deposits which not infrequently carry as much as $6 or $7 per ton of gold on the outcrop. As a rule the content of gold in both the Japanese and

Jan 12, 1915

By H. H. Vogel

THIS paper describes the milling practice and operating results of the recently installed heavy-media separation plant of Barton Mines Corporation, the world's largest producer of garnet. This pioneer application of heavy-media separation (sink-float) processes for the beneficiation of a nonmetallic ore is unique in many respects, the details of which will be apparent from the following presentation. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ORE The property is on Gore Mountain, 5 miles west of the village of North Creek, New York, and 11 miles by road. The altitude of the mine is approximately 2800 feet. The valuable mineral, garnet, occurs in a surface deposit, the ore body being about ¾ mile long and varying in width from 50 to 300 ft. The garnet, principally almandite, Fe3A12 (Si04)3, occurs in a metamorphic rock of uncertain origin. The gangue mineral is principally hornblende, which constitutes from 40 to 80 per cent of the rock. The remainder of the gangue is divided between plagioclase feldspars and hypersthene, with smaller amounts of biotite, apatite and pyrite. The garnet content of the ore body varies from 5 to 20 per cent of the mass and averages about 10 to 12 per cent. The garnet occurs as crystals, mostly imperfectly developed, known locally as "pockets." These crystals vary in size from a fraction of an inch to a foot or more in diameter. Occasionally crystals have been found up to 30 and 36 in. in diameter but they average 4 to 6 inches. Nearly every crystal of garnet is surrounded by a rim of coarsely crystalline hornblende. The quarry faces are striking in appearance, showing crimson-red garnet crystals with their coal black rims scattered over a grayish black background. The specific gravity of the garnet is 3.8 to 4.1 while that of the hornblende ordinarily is 3.07 to 3.24. Some specimens of very dense hornblende have been found with a specific gravity as high as 3.40. The garnet crystals are laminated in structure, and readily cleave into flat, tabular pieces with sharp, chisel-like edges. Even when crushed to a very fine size, the garnet retains this flat, sharp, slivery grain shape. This characteristic, together with its hardness and toughness, gives it its value as an abrasive. FORMER OPERATIONS Mining operations have been carried on for 60 years. Until 1023, only the oxidized (soft rock) section of the ore body was mined. The oxidation, which affected the garnet only slightly, made possible the removal of the garnet from the rock by hand after it was blasted down, using small hand picks. In 1923 a mill was erected on the property, and was rebuilt and redesigned in 1928. Before the adoption of heavy-media separation, concentration was effected by

Jan 1, 1943

By H. H

This paper describes the milling practice and operating results of the recently installed heavy-media separation plant of Barton Mines Corporation, the world's largest producer of garnet. This pioneer application of heavy-media separation (sink-float) processes for the beneficiation of a nonmetallic ore is unique in many respects, the details of which will be apparent from the following presentation. Characteristics of the Ore The property is on Gore Mountain, 5 miles west of the village of North Creek, New York, and 11 miles by road. The altitude of the mine is approximately 2800 feet. The valuable mineral, garnet, occurs in a surface deposit, the ore body being about ¾, mile long and varying in width from 50 to 300 ft. The garnet, principally almandite, Fe3Al2 (SiO4)3, occurs in a metamorphic rock of uncertain origin. The gangue mineral is principally hornblende, which constitutes from 40 to 80 per cent of the rock. The remainder of the gangue is divided between plagioclase feldspars and hypersthene, with smaller amounts of biotite, apatite and pyrite. The garnet content of the ore body varies from 5 to 20 per cent of the mass and averages about 10 to I2 per cent. The garnet occurs as crystals, mostly imperfectly developed, known locally as "pockets." These crys- tals vary in size from a fraction of an inch to a foot or more in diameter. Occasionally crystals have been found up to 30 and 36 in. in diameter but they average 4 to 6 inches. Nearly every crystal of garnet is surrounded by a rim of coarsely crystalline hornblende. The quarry faces are striking in appearance, showing crimson-red garnet crystals with their coal black rims scattered over a grayish black background. The specific gravity of the garnet is 3.8 to 4.1 while that of the hornblende ordinarily is 3-07 to 3.24. Some specimens of very dense hornblende have been found with a specific gravity as high as 3.40. The garnet crystals are laminated in structure, and readily cleave into flat, tabular pieces with sharp, chisel-like edges. Even when crushed to a very fine size, the garnet retains this flat, sharp, slivery grain shape. This characteristic, together with its hardness and toughness, gives it its value as an abrasive- Former Operations Mining operations have been carried on for 60 years. Until 1923, only the oxidized (soft rock) section of the ore body was mined. The oxidation, which affected the garnet only slightly, made possible the removal of the garnet from the rock by hand after it was blasted down, using small hand picks. In 1923 a mill was erected on the property, and was rebuilt and redesigned in 1928. Before the adoption of heavy-media separation, concentration was effected by

Jan 1, 1943

By John P. Bryant

Plant nutrients are obtained by plants from both the air and the soil. Carbon dioxide, a gaseous form of carbon and oxygen, supplies the carbon which usually makes up 50% or more of plant structure. Plants are capable of absorbing carbon dioxide directly from the air. Most of this nutrient comes from the air, although some carbon dioxide is absorbed by soil water and taken into the plant as liquid. Growing plants use more water than any other substance. Plant nutrients in the soil dissolve in soil water; soil water entering the plant carries nutrients into the plant structure. Water is then given off into the air as the plant breathes or transpires. The inorganic or mineral portion of the nutrients which plants require comes from the soil. Inorganic or mineral composition of plants is usually less than 5% of their weight, and this mineral requirement, usually lacking in the soil, must be provided by fertilizers. Proper fertilization of a soil to improve its mineral level and productivity is the basis for the fertilizer industry (Thomas, 1960). There are 13 essential plant nutrients which often must be added to soils or plants and are generally considered as fertilizer minerals. These nutrients are divided into the categories: primary minerals (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium); secondary minerals (calcium, magnesium, sulfur); and micro or trace minerals (boron, iron, manganese, copper, zinc, molybdenum, chlorine). Further, cobalt is often added to fertilizers. Although it is not considered to be an essential plant nutrient, it is essential to animal health and is often applied to forages as a fertilizer constituent. One point of major significance to the fertilizer industry is that not all nutrient carriers supply that nutrient in a chemical form which will be available to the plant. Thus, a product which may be considered a fertilizer mineral may require substantial processing or treatment before it becomes useful as a nutrient carrier. Fertilizer Industry Scope Until about 1900 demands for higher crop yields were met simply by bringing new agricultural lands into cultivation. Since that time great progress has been made in increasing yields through fertilization and improved varieties and cultural practices. The importance of the fertilizer industry to the economy and welfare of the U.S. is widely recognized. [Fig. 1] illustrates the relationship of lime and fertilizers to crop yields. In terms of tons of fertilizer products, the growth of the industry has been phenomenal, particularly between 1950 and 1970. Table 1 shows the increase in fertilizer usage. Primary Plant Nutrients in Fertilizers Primary minerals (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) are designated as such because of their significance to plant growth. Practically all soils are deficient in both nitrogen and phosphorus, and most of them are also deficient in potassium. Consequently, these nutrients

Jan 1, 1975

By H. H

This paper describes the milling practice and operating results of the recently installed heavy-media separation plant of Barton Mines Corporation, the world's largest producer of garnet. This pioneer application of heavy-media separation (sink-float) processes for the beneficiation of a nonmetallic ore is unique in many respects, the details of which will be apparent from the following presentation. Characteristics of the Ore The property is on Gore Mountain, 5 miles west of the village of North Creek, New York, and 11 miles by road. The altitude of the mine is approximately 2800 feet. The valuable mineral, garnet, occurs in a surface deposit, the ore body being about ¾, mile long and varying in width from 50 to 300 ft. The garnet, principally almandite, Fe3Al2 (SiO4)3, occurs in a metamorphic rock of uncertain origin. The gangue mineral is principally hornblende, which constitutes from 40 to 80 per cent of the rock. The remainder of the gangue is divided between plagioclase feldspars and hypersthene, with smaller amounts of biotite, apatite and pyrite. The garnet content of the ore body varies from 5 to 20 per cent of the mass and averages about 10 to I2 per cent. The garnet occurs as crystals, mostly imperfectly developed, known locally as "pockets." These crys- tals vary in size from a fraction of an inch to a foot or more in diameter. Occasionally crystals have been found up to 30 and 36 in. in diameter but they average 4 to 6 inches. Nearly every crystal of garnet is surrounded by a rim of coarsely crystalline hornblende. The quarry faces are striking in appearance, showing crimson-red garnet crystals with their coal black rims scattered over a grayish black background. The specific gravity of the garnet is 3.8 to 4.1 while that of the hornblende ordinarily is 3-07 to 3.24. Some specimens of very dense hornblende have been found with a specific gravity as high as 3.40. The garnet crystals are laminated in structure, and readily cleave into flat, tabular pieces with sharp, chisel-like edges. Even when crushed to a very fine size, the garnet retains this flat, sharp, slivery grain shape. This characteristic, together with its hardness and toughness, gives it its value as an abrasive- Former Operations Mining operations have been carried on for 60 years. Until 1923, only the oxidized (soft rock) section of the ore body was mined. The oxidation, which affected the garnet only slightly, made possible the removal of the garnet from the rock by hand after it was blasted down, using small hand picks. In 1923 a mill was erected on the property, and was rebuilt and redesigned in 1928. Before the adoption of heavy-media separation, concentration was effected by

Jan 1, 1943

AS I told you in the chapter on salts, saltpeter is a mixture composed of many substances extracted with fire- and water from arid and manurial soils, from that growth which exudes from new walls or from that loosened soil that is found in tombs or uninhabited caves where the rain cannot enter. It is my belief that it is engendered in these soils from an airy moisture that is drunk in and absorbed by the earthy dryness. Considering its effects, I do not know how to decide and say exactly what the nature of saltpeter is. The learned and very wise physicians find it salty and with a subtle sharpness both in taste and in their medical experiments. Considering its strong biting qualities, they decide to say that it is of a hot and dry nature; on the other hand when they see that it is engendered from the air and that when touched by fire it becomes inflammable and vaporous, and rises with a fearful impetus when mixed in powder for military guns, it manifestly shows itself to be of a hot and moist airy nature. And then when they see that it is shining and transparent with whiteness and is fusible in every fire in a manner corresponding to a thing of a watery nature, and since it. is heavy, it seems that it can be said to be watery in nature. To this is added the experience of touch and of the great cooling action which it has on water in summertime when wine is to be cooled, and since it crushes and breaks with but little pressure, it might be thought to be earthy in nature; especially when it is seen to change into a hard, white stone when burned with an equal amount of sulphur. Thus it seems that every one of the elemental qualities is predominant in it. Now the ancients called this, or a similar thing, nitrum. [150] Pliny, in Book XXXI of his Natural History, has said that it was a thing not much different from salt, that doctors do not seem to have yet known its nature, that it is found in various places, and that the best is found in Macedonia. But among the moderns and especially in our regions, it is not known today what it is that Pliny and other writers refer -to, since according to the aforesaid Pliny and other ancient writers it is a natural mineral. Some say that in place of, the natural kind the artificial will serve for the same medicinal purposes, since it has the same nature and is perhaps more powerful.

Jan 1, 1942

By C. G. Durdaller, W. H. Robinson, G. M. Pound

The nucleation rate of the a (pay) to 0 (white) tin transformation was measured as a function of temperature and a tin particle size using an X-ray diffraction technique. The powder specimens of a tin were essentially monodisperse and the small dinzension of the particles of these specimens was varied from 13 to 75 p. Several types of nucleation sites of differing potency were fbund to be operative in the nucleation process, but it could not be determined whether these sites were on the free surface of the tin particles or within the volume. Assuming that they were on the free surface, the average density of the most potent sites was calculated to be 2.5 to 5.3 x 10' sites per sq cnz through the application of a Poisson distribztion finction to the isothermal data. Analysis of the temperature dependence' of the rate constmts at a given fraction transformed suggests that the active sites are regions of higher free energy and not catalytic interfaces. Appreciable induction periods were observed at the lower temperatures of transformation. Experimental studies1 of solid-solid phase transformations have led to the belief that the new phase nucleates at structural imperfections. The purpose of the present work was to learn more about the mechanism of nucleation in solids and the nature of the singularities at which nucleation occurs. In this investigation nucleation rates in the isothermal transformation of gray to white tin were measured by an X-ray diffraction technique using essentially monodisperse powders of gray tin. This particular phase transformation was chosen for study because it presented fewer experimental difficulties than most others. The experimental temperature-control problems were minimal because the two phases coexist in equilibrium at 13.3"C, and measurable transformation rates occur at temperatures only slightly above room temperature. The growth rate of the P phase into the a2 is sufficiently fast to make the measured transformation rate equivalent to the nucleation rate, provided that the particle size of the samples is small enough; for the experimental temperatures used in this study, the particle diameter must be less than 100 p. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE The P tin used in this study was obtained from Capper Pass and Son Ltd., North Ferriby, Yorkshire, England, and was of 99.999 pct purity. It was transformedS to the a phase and ground into a fine powder in an agate mortar. This powder was separated by a Roller air classifier into seven fractions whose dimensions, as determined by microscopic measurement of many thousands of particles, are given in Table I and whose distribution of size within each fraction is given in Figs. 1 and 2. The shape of the particles was roughly that of an oblate spheroid,

Jan 1, 1964

By Robert P. Burrows

Discussion of the paper of R. P. Burrows, presented `at the New York meeting, February, 1916, and printed in Bulletin No. 107, November, 1915, pp. 2237 to 2245. EDWIN M. CHANCE, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.-I have been very much interested in the comprehensive and able discussion of the important topic of mine lighting just given by Mr. Burrows, especially as I know by common report Mr. Burrows' ability and his close touch with the development of the electric mine lamp, and its use in mines in connection with a portable electric lamp. It is regrettable that Mr: Burrows was not able to acquaint himself more closely with the cost of mine illumination, the actual cost, as produced by a portable light as carried by miners, whether a flame safety lamp or an open light. Had he been able to acquaint himself more closely with these data, he perhaps would not have arrived at some of the conclusions which he has presented to us in his paper. For example, we find Mr. Burrows advises that the open torch is by far the cheapest source of illumination, as produced by a portable light. I am very sure that is not the fact. The cost of miners' oil varies from about 25.c. a gallon to 90b. a gallon. The various States have passed laws from time to time rendering it mandatory that the miner shall use, whether he is willing or not, a so-called better or higher grade of burning oil. These laws have entailed the use of an oil so expensive that the use of the oil torch has become practically impossible, and the acetylene or carbide miners' lamp has largely taken its place. I have evolved a few figures showing the relative efficiency and usefulness of the open oil torch and the acetylene miners' lamp. For example, the acetylene miners' lamp consumes or burns 4 liters of acetylene per hour, or 0.14 cu. ft.; the oxygen consumed is 10 liters, or 0.35 cu. ft. per hour; air consumed, 50 liters, or 1.76 cu. ft. per hour; black-damp produced, 40 liters, or 1.41 cu. ft. per hour; air rendered extinctive to the acetylene flame, 112 liters, or 3.95 cu. ft. per hour; carbide con- sumed, 13 g. per hour. The open oil torch, on the other hand, burns about 20 g. of oil per hour; the oxygen consumed is 48 liters, or 1.69 cu. ft. per. hour; air consumed, 240 liters, or 8.47 cu. ft. per hour; blackdamp produced, 191 liters, or 6.73 cu. ft. per hour; air rendered extinctive to oil flame is 1,413 liters, or 49.92 cu. ft. per hour.

Jan 5, 1916

By A. L. Marshall, F. J Norton

The object of this investigation was to make a comprehensive study of the degassing of molybdenum in order to determine how rigorous a treatment was necessary to completely remove sorbed gases from molybdenum electrodes in vacuum tubes. Some work has also been done with tungsten, nickel, iron and carbon. As a logical development of this work it has been shown that the gas is present throughout the body of the metal and a study has been made of the solubility of nitrogen in molybdenum and tungsten and the rate, of diffusion of nitrogen through molybdenum has been calculated. Tests were made on molybdenum from all the commercial sources and no difference was discovered in the nature of the gases present, the amounts or the ease of removal. The reason for this was apparent when a study was made of the manner in which gases are absorbed by gas-free molybdenum. It is necessary to heat molybdenum to 1760°C. in a vacuum of the order of 0.001 micron for a time which varies lineally with the thickness, in order to obtain a condition in which no further gas is evolved by the sample. A sample so degassed can be handled and subsequently assembled in a tube and then degassed readily. The gases obtained from molybdenum are carbon monoxide and nitrogen, the nitrogen being the more difficult to remove. Apparatus and Technique The apparatus is shown in Figs. I and 2. It consisted of two units, a degassing system and an analytical system. Each had a bake-out oven, as shown surrounding the systems in the sketches. The system , will be traced, starting from the sample in the degassing system. A water-cooled quartz chamber surrounded the sample. The high-frequency coil, which heated the sample, extended only around this chamber and was cooled by an air blast. High-frequency power of 1800-meter wave length was obtained from a self-rectifying oscillator circuit with a maximum power input of 20 kw. A graded seal connected the quartz to the rest of the apparatus, which was of hard glass. The temperature of the molybdenum sample was observed by an optical pyrometer through an optical window about 40 cm. distant from the sample. Since the object viewed under these conditions was not a black body, true temperature was not observed, but the so-called "brightness temperature." The correction of this to true temperature is discussed in a later section. The apparatus was taken apart just above the graded seal; the quartz chamber was slipped off, washed with nitric acid, water and alcohol, and dried by an air stream. The old sample was removed by unscrewing the lower nut, and the new

Jan 1, 1944

By R. S. Moehlman

IN recent years, exploration and development by diamond drilling has become a popular attack on the problem of finding new ore shoots and developing extensions of known shoots. Diamond drilling has been used in recent years in extensive sampling of disseminated copper deposits, in preference to churn drilling. At the Harvard gold mine, near Jamestown, California, Philip R. Bradley, Jr., general superintendent, reports that: "The Harvard work was a singular example of the reliance that can be placed on diamond drilling in evaluating an ore body." Drilling at the Harvard mine will be discussed in a subsequent section of the paper. So popular has diamond drilling become, indeed, that many who have had slight experience with drilling are inclined to regard it as a cheap cure-all. This paper proposes to show some of the limitations on the application of drilling and some of the steps that should be followed in drilling programs to obtain reliable results. COST OF DRILLING Drilling has the advantage, over shaft sinking and drifting, of lower cost and greater speed. As compared with churn drilling, the advantage of bringing up a coherent sample instead of fine cuttings for a sample is obvious. Diamond drilling is generally more expensive, however, and more engineering effort is required in combining the average of core and sludge samples. Exploration of drift walls by hammer drills to a depth of less than 50 ft. is generally cheaper than diamond drilling, but beyond this depth the diamond drill is cheaper and more efficient. The principal factor in determining cost of drilling is the character of the ground drilled. Broken ground with many fissures is most expensive to drill. Hard ground is less of a problem with diamond drills than with ordinary machine drills. Hardness or softness affects only the speed of drilling. Caving, easily washed, sandy or clayey ground requires continual cementing and casing, which is the greatest cost problem. Thus, soft, incompetent ground is more costly to drill than hard, massive ground. Cost of drilling per foot in good to fair ground varies from less than $1 per foot, achieved in some districts in Ontario, the Mother Lode, and Missouri, to $5 per foot in many western states. In bad drilling ground, costs may range from $5 to $15 or more per foot, thus approaching the cost of drifting. Other factors that increase the cost per foot are: I. Short total length of hole drilled, so that the cost of moving in crews and equipment must be spread over a relatively few feet. 2. Cost of drilling per foot increases with depth beyond about 500 ft., as more time is consumed in pulling rods. 3. Cost of preparing drilling stations, getting air underground to stations, etc. 4. Inaccessibility and lack of water on the job make for higher costs.

Jan 1, 1946

By J. H. Lightfoot, Stuart E. Buckley

DEEP drilling has led to the development of numerous pools which yield products consisting predominantly of natural gas accompanied by high-gravity water-white or slightly straw-colored liquid. Yields of this "condensate" or "distillate," as it is commonly called, vary from traces to over a hundred barrels per million cubic feet of gas. The fact that this liquid exists in the reservoir as an integral part of the gas phase and is formed by condensation attending simultaneous reduction of pressure and temperature after its entry into the well was apparently first recognized about 1932.1 The nature of the physical phenomena involved in this condensation was clarified for the petroleum industry in 1933 by a report by Sage, Schaafsma, and Lacey2 of the results of an experimental investigation of the behavior of mixtures of methane and propane. Search of the literature has revealed that the condensation of liquid from gaseous mixtures by isothermal pressure reduction is not a new discovery. Kuenen was led by theoretical considerations to expect such a phenomenon, and in 1892 reported3 the results of experimental verification of his deductions. This was followed by a considerable amount of work on the phase relations of mixtures by Kuenen4,5,6 and by others,7,8 mostly in European universities. Since 1930 investigators in this country have reported experimental data on the properties and behavior of a number of hydrocarbon systems.9-17 It is now generally known that in the presence of natural gas the solubility in the gas phase of the heavier and normally liquid hydrocarbons increases rapidly with increasing pressure above 500 to 1000 lb. per sq. in. Thus, at pressures of 2500 lb. per sq. in. or higher a gas may contain appreciable quantities of hydrocarbons with normal boiling points as high as 600°F., which in turn may be condensed from the gas phase by the reduction of their solubility therein attending pressure reduction. The combined effects of pressure and temperature on condensation and vaporization of mixtures are most readily visualized by the study of phase diagrams. Since the construction, application, and interpretation of such diagrams have been described fully in readily available literature, 18-20 this paper will not review the theoretical aspects of this subject. While the behavior of gas-distillate systems is now clearly understood, at least in a qualitative way, most of the published work deals with the results of laboratory studies of binary systems or of synthetic mixtures of hydrocarbons, and although several systematic investigations of the effects of separator pressure and temperature on the yields of liquid product from gas-distillate wells have been made21.22 it appears that in all cases the limitations have precluded the construction of even approximately complete phase diagrams for naturally occurring systems. There has

Jan 1, 1941

By A. L. Marshall, F. J. Norton

The object of this investigation was to make a comprehensive study of the degassing of molybdenum in order to determine how rigorous a treatment was necessary to completely remove sorbed gases from molybdenum electrodes in vacuum tubes. Some work has also been done with tungsten, nickel, iron and carbon. As a logical development of this work it has been shown that the gas is present throughout the body of the metal and a study has been made of the solubility of nitrogen in molybdenum and tungsten and the rate, of diffusion of nitrogen through molybdenum has been calculated. Tests were made on molybdenum from all the commercial sources and no difference was discovered in the nature of the gases present, the amounts or the ease of removal. The reason for this was apparent when a study was made of the manner in which gases are absorbed by gas-free molybdenum. It is necessary to heat molybdenum to 1760°C. in a vacuum of the order of 0.001 micron for a time which varies lineally with the thickness, in order to obtain a condition in which no further gas is evolved by the sample. A sample so degassed can be handled and subsequently assembled in a tube and then degassed readily. The gases obtained from molybdenum are carbon monoxide and nitrogen, the nitrogen being the more difficult to remove. Apparatus and Technique The apparatus is shown in Figs. I and 2. It consisted of two units, a degassing system and an analytical system. Each had a bake-out oven, as shown surrounding the systems in the sketches. The system , will be traced, starting from the sample in the degassing system. A water-cooled quartz chamber surrounded the sample. The high-frequency coil, which heated the sample, extended only around this chamber and was cooled by an air blast. High-frequency power of 1800-meter wave length was obtained from a self-rectifying oscillator circuit with a maximum power input of 20 kw. A graded seal connected the quartz to the rest of the apparatus, which was of hard glass. The temperature of the molybdenum sample was observed by an optical pyrometer through an optical window about 40 cm. distant from the sample. Since the object viewed under these conditions was not a black body, true temperature was not observed, but the so-called "brightness temperature." The correction of this to true temperature is discussed in a later section. The apparatus was taken apart just above the graded seal; the quartz chamber was slipped off, washed with nitric acid, water and alcohol, and dried by an air stream. The old sample was removed by unscrewing the lower nut, and the new

Jan 1, 1944

By T. H. Dunn, P. L. Menaul

This paper discusses the results of an investigation made to develop a method of combatting corrosion of subsurface oil-well equipment caused by brines containing hydrogen sulphide. Carbon monoxide, aldehydes, and certain cyanide compounds were found by laboratory tests to effectively inhibit corrosion of steel by sulphide brines. Experiments were made for one year in eight wells in West Texas fields using formaldehyde as an inhibitor. It was found that the inhibitor treatment successfully prevented the severe corrosion previously experienced in these wells, and effected important net savings in operating costs. Introduction Corrosion of oil-field equipment has long been a problem in areas producing sour crudes. These areas include the major fields of Arkansas, Western Kansas, West Texas and New Mexico. Corrosion in these fields is caused primarily by the chemical action of hydrogen sulphide in the presence of water and by electric currents entering the wells through flow lines. Hydrogen sulphide is noncorrosive to iron or steel in the absence of water but under the usual conditions prevailing in oil wells where more or less water is present, hydrogen sulphide is very corrosive. This type of corrosion occurs over the pH range below 9, which includes all natural oil-field brines. If air is present in addition to hydrogen sulphide and water, corrosion proceeds at an extremely rapid rate. It was reported several years ago that a string of oil-well tubing was literally dissolved within 50 days where an air lift was used on a well producing considerable water and hydrogen sulphide. Air is generally absent in wells producing sour crude. After hydrogen sulphide corrosion starts, it proceeds with increasing severity and its correction becomes progressively more difficult. This characteristic of sulphide corrosion has been attributed to the formation of galvanic couples between the iron and steel equipment on one hand and the products of corrosion on the other.' Severe corrosion of subsurface oil-well equipment leads to a multitude of troubles. In addition to destruction of costly equipment, producing sands often are damaged by flooding with water leaking through corroded casing; bad mechanical conditions may develop in a well due to obstructions caused by corroded equipment lost in the hole, or partly collapsed casing; pumping operations are interfered with, and severe emulsification problems may result from the homogenizing action of corroded balls and seats.% A typical case of severe corrosion caused by hydrogen sulphide was reported in Howard County, Texas, where it was necessary to pull tubing once a week to repair leaks after the tubing had been in use for only one year. On one well in this area a string of tubing was pulled 11 times in 8 months; 11 joints of tubing being replaced because of leaks. In Ector

Jan 1, 1946

By O. Cuscoleca

The Austrian plants at Donawitz and Linz were the first to blow steel with high purity oxygen. The paper shows how the process was developed and gives a survey of the results achieved to date. Compared with open hearth steel of equal quality, the obvious advantages of oxygen steel are the low investment and conversion costs. The nitrogen content of oxygen steel is not higher than that of good open hearth steel. Rimmed and killed steel products made by the oxygen process are superior to rimmed and killed steel products made by the best open hearth process. TWO new steel plants using the principle of making steel with high purity oxygen went into operation in Austria, one at Linz (Vereinigte oster-reichische Stahlwerke) in November 1952 and the other at Donawitz (dsterreichisch-Alpine Montan-gesellschaft) in May 1953. An estimated 330,000 metric tons were produced by the two plants in 1953, the first year of operation. In 1954 production by Austrian plants- using the high purity oxygen approach will be raised to 450,000 metric tons. This will be in addition to facilities in Huckingen (Man-nesmann A. G., Düsseldorf, Germany), those planned and under construction at Hamilton, Ontario, Canada (Dominion Foundries and Steel, Ltd.), and elsewhere. It is expected that by 1955 a total capacity of one million tons of high purity oxygen steel will be available. At the close of the last century, because of increasing availability of scrap, open hearth steel production forged ahead at an ever increasing pace. This caused world steel production to rise faster than pig iron production and finally to overtake it. In 1911 65 million tons of steel were produced against 64 million tons of pig iron. World steel production was 209 million tons in 1951, while pig iron output was only 147 million tons. The 1951 breakdown for steel shows 118 million tons made from pig iron, while the balance, 91 million tons or 44 pct of the total tonnage of steel produced, was made from scrap. This increase in crude steel production on a basis of high scrap consumption led to the world market scrap shortage and soaring scrap prices. In the United States and other nations, production of converter steel has fallen far behind that of open hearth steel. The surplus of processing scrap, un-absorbable by converting mills and thus a welcome source for open hearth and electric melting shops in the past, together with regular scrap purchases, no longer can meet requirements of both open hearth and electric steel production in Europe. In addition, recent modification of the basic bessemer process, blowing with oxygenated blast, substantially raised the scrap capacity of these plants. Any further expansion of world steel production will necessitate utilization of self-containing processes in regard to scrap because of the shortage.

Jan 1, 1955

By T. H. Dunn, P. L. Menaul

This paper discusses the results of an investigation made to develop a method of combatting corrosion of subsurface oil-well equipment caused by brines containing hydrogen sulphide. Carbon monoxide, aldehydes, and certain cyanide compounds were found by laboratory tests to effectively inhibit corrosion of steel by sulphide brines. Experiments were made for one year in eight wells in West Texas fields using formaldehyde as an inhibitor. It was found that the inhibitor treatment successfully prevented the severe corrosion previously experienced in these wells, and effected important net savings in operating costs. Introduction Corrosion of oil-field equipment has long been a problem in areas producing sour crudes. These areas include the major fields of Arkansas, Western Kansas, West Texas and New Mexico. Corrosion in these fields is caused primarily by the chemical action of hydrogen sulphide in the presence of water and by electric currents entering the wells through flow lines. Hydrogen sulphide is noncorrosive to iron or steel in the absence of water but under the usual conditions prevailing in oil wells where more or less water is present, hydrogen sulphide is very corrosive. This type of corrosion occurs over the pH range below 9, which includes all natural oil-field brines. If air is present in addition to hydrogen sulphide and water, corrosion proceeds at an extremely rapid rate. It was reported several years ago that a string of oil-well tubing was literally dissolved within 50 days where an air lift was used on a well producing considerable water and hydrogen sulphide. Air is generally absent in wells producing sour crude. After hydrogen sulphide corrosion starts, it proceeds with increasing severity and its correction becomes progressively more difficult. This characteristic of sulphide corrosion has been attributed to the formation of galvanic couples between the iron and steel equipment on one hand and the products of corrosion on the other.' Severe corrosion of subsurface oil-well equipment leads to a multitude of troubles. In addition to destruction of costly equipment, producing sands often are damaged by flooding with water leaking through corroded casing; bad mechanical conditions may develop in a well due to obstructions caused by corroded equipment lost in the hole, or partly collapsed casing; pumping operations are interfered with, and severe emulsification problems may result from the homogenizing action of corroded balls and seats.% A typical case of severe corrosion caused by hydrogen sulphide was reported in Howard County, Texas, where it was necessary to pull tubing once a week to repair leaks after the tubing had been in use for only one year. On one well in this area a string of tubing was pulled 11 times in 8 months; 11 joints of tubing being replaced because of leaks. In Ector

Jan 1, 1946

By M. R. J. Wyllie, P. F. Southwick

The importance of the so-called "dirty sand" or "conductive solids" problem in electric log interpretation was first stressed in a paper presented in 1949. Since that time the problem has been generally recognized as a most serious one. Several research papers bearing on the theory of the effects of clay contaminants on reservoir rock resistivities have appeared. These papers, while contributing to the theory of the problem, have not offered any practical solution. In the present paper an experimental investigation has been made of the effects of ion-exchange materials on the electrical properties of natural and synthetic porous media. The method used to make synthetic dirty sands is entirely novel and has proved a valuable guide to a better understanding of the properties of dirty sands generally. The effects of ion-exchange materials on both the resistivity and self potential (S.P.) logs have been examined. From the data obtained it has been possible to formulate a simple, practical method whereby electrical logs of dirty sands can be qualitatively interpreted. The method is in all essentials identical to that presently in use for interpreting clean sands. New light has also been thrown on the significance of the term formation factor when it is applied to dirty sands. In 1949 a paper was presented1 which showed that the presence of so-called "conductive solids" introduced considerable complexities into the analysis of the resistivities of dirty sands, i.e., permeable formations containing clay. The reduction of the self potential (S.P.) resulting from the presence of interlaminated shale or interstitial clay in permeable formations has been discussed by Doll.2,3 Noteworthy papers which dilate further upon the effects of shale and clay on the resistivity of permeable formations are those of deWitte,4,5 Berg,6 Wyllie,7 and most recently, Winsauer and McCardell.8 The last authors have endeavored to elucidate the chemistry of the resistivity phenomena in dirty sands in terms of an adsorption hypothesis. Specifically, they attribute the electrolytic conductivity of shales and clays within a permeable formation to an ionic double-layer effect and, for this reason, regard the term "conductive solids" as a misleading one. Some consideration has been given to the effect of dirty sands on the S.P. by Wyllie7 and by McCardell, Winsauer and Williams." Published work to date has cast light only on certain theoretical aspects of the problems created by the presence of clays and shales within permeable formations. One object of this paper is to describe experiments which serve to elucidate further the theory of the dirty sand problem and particularly the significance of the term "formation factor" as applied to dirty

Jan 1, 1955

By R. E. Mussler, F. E. Block, T. T. Campbell

An exploratovy study was made to deternzine the feasibility of preparing beryllium by the metallother-. mic reduction of beryllium oxide. The procedure involved heating a relatively nonvolatile metal reductant in contact with beryllium oxide in a vacuum. Beryllium vapors formed in the reaction were condensed as a coherent deposit on a heated surface. Reductants tested included tanthanun, yttrium, thorium, Th-Mg, and Zr- Ti alloys, and the hydrides of lanthaniir~z, yttriunz, and zirconiur?7,. Test ten7pevatures ranged from 1350'to 175O' C, and reaction times ranged frot 30 to 100 lzr. In most cases metal recoveries were lola, although yields close to 90 pct of theoretical were obtained with latzthanum, yttrium, and zirconium reductants. In most cases metal deposits were contanzinated by beryllides, /ls/cally of the Beln M or Bel3 M type. BERYLLIUM has a variety of unique properties including light weight (sp gr 1.85), low thermal neutron absorption cross section, high scattering cross section, excellent dimensional stability, high strength to weight ratio, high melting point (1285"C), high specific heat, and high thermal conductivity. Interest in beryllium as a structural material in aerospace and nuclear-reactor applications is based on these properties. In general, the potential of beryllium has been only partially realized, largely because of the brittleness of poly crystalline forms of beryllium, difficulties associated in its fabrication, and joining problems encountered in its use in structural applications. Several excellent books and monographs are available to those interested in the occurrence, extractive metallurgy, and utilization of beryllium.1"* Although an extensive amount of research on beryllium has been in progress during the past 10 years, much of the work has been concerned either with the so-called "ductility problem" or with the development of methods of fabrication and evaluation of properties of various commercial or purified grades of metal. A recent survey of the literature indicates that only limited efforts are presently being directed toward developing new methods for reducing beryllium compounds to metal. Two major commercial methods now used to produce beryllium are the magnesium reduction of beryllium fluoride and e lec trow inn ing of beryllium from fused sodium chloride-beryllium chloride salt baths. Only a limited amount of work has been done on the direct reduction of beryllium oxide. Major factors which complicate this method are the great stability of beryllium oxide and the reactive nature of beryllium metal. The stability of the oxide necessitates extremely high reduction temperatures and vacuum operation to liberate beryllium metal vapor and cause reactions of the following type to proceed: XBeO(s) +YM(s)-MYOX(s) + XBe(& As early as 1939, roll' used this reaction for the direct reduction of beryllia by zirconium and titanium, and later in 1952 ~a~el~ studied the reduction of beryl-

Jan 1, 1967

By K. E. Merklin, F. D. DeVaney

In the past most of the research in pelletizing has as its aim the production of a physically strong pellet. Now that this problem is solved, more attention is being paid to uniformity in grade and chemical composition. Consideration has been given in recent years to a study of additives which will make pellets partially or fully fluxed. Blast furnace tests show fluxed pellets to have advantages over both fluxed sinter and acid pellets. Lower slag volumes are used more frequently in the blast furnace and the uniformity of the charge, both physically and chemically, is becoming increasingly important. A considerable improvement can be secured by having all of the flux uniformly distributed through the pellets in a calcined state. A fluxed pellet, therefore, should be a superior product. The use of an ore burden that contains an appropriate quantity of fluxing materials is not new to the blast furnace industry. For years the Minette ores of France and Germany, the Clinton ores of the Birmingham, Ala., areas, as well as others, which are low in iron but contain calcium carbonate in sufficient quantities to give them self-fluxing properties, have proven economical. The adaption of the sintering process to the preparation of ore burdens provided a means for artifically associating the fluxstone with the iron ore prior to charging to the blast furnace. In 1944 Torpl discussed the effects of using lime in sinter made in Sweden on the sinter's metallurgical performance in a blast furnace. Hessle2 reported in 1945 on the advantages of using lime in sinter to increase the sintering plants' capacity and reduce fuel requirements. Robinson3 discussed the use of lime in Swedish sintering practice at the 1950 Blast Furnace, Coke Oven, and Raw Materials meeting. One of the suggested advantages was the combining of lime with silica to prevent the formation of a fayalite slag, which is difficult to reduce in the blast furnace. Nilson4 at the same meeting commented briefly on experimental work that had just started in the U. S. on the use of lime in sinter. The literature tends to indicate that most of this early work was directed towards improvement in sinter physical quality, and the fact that the feed to the blast furnace was partially fluxed was incidental. It was not long, however, before blast furnace advantages were being claimed. The matter was forcibly called to the attention of North American operators by reports of remarkable production records established by the Russians using fluxed sinter. The leading step was taken on this continent by the Steel Company of Canada in 1957; McMahon5 reported on the marked improvement in performance of an 18-ft blast furnace using fluxed sinter at its Hamilton works. Other North American operators quickly followed theStelco lead.

Jan 1, 1963

By Maxwell Adams

OLIVER C. RALSTON, Salt Lake City, Utah.-We are indebted to these two gentlemen for the work which they have done with the oils derived from sage brush. Their work should not be confused, however, as the work of Mr. Adams deals with steam-distilled oils and that of Mr. Clevenger with destructively distilled oil, largely. In other words, Mr. Adams' oil is probably the original essential oil that existed' in the brush before distillation while Mr. Clevenger's oil not only contained this essential oil but also some products of destructive distillation of the wood constituents. I had noticed the work of Mr. Adams on attempting to separate the various constituents in the oils of some of the Western conifers and had sent to him to ask if he could send me small samples of some of. these pure products. This he very kindly did, and with them included some samples of oil from the common sage brush, whose characteristics he has here described, as well as a sample of oil from the common "rabbit brush." Only the sage brush oil proved of much value for flotation, but it, was very powerful, and I so informed Mr. Adams. Even in amounts as small or smaller than 1/10 lb. per ton of ore, it gave very quick and positive flotation of many ores, with high-grade concentrates and good extractions. It proved to be especially desirable for the flotation of carbonates of lead and of copper which had received an artificial coating of sulphide by treatment with a solution of a soluble sulphide. I also received a sample of crude pyroligneous acid from sage brush prepared by Dr. W. C. Ebaugh, of Salt Lake City. It did not do very good work in flotation, but it is possible that by concentration of this product to obtain the residual tar a good flotation oil might result. This has not been done as yet and I am sorry to see that Mr. Clevenger has not done this. It might be that the dissolved tar, added to the settled tar, would make a total yield of flotation oil higher than the 4 per cent. which Mr. Clevenger feels is a safe estimate. The importance of this point will be seen in the following discussion of the possible costs of sage brush oils for flotation.

Jan 10, 1916