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By P. G. Irwin

Natural resins, those derived from coal and those mined in the Uintah basin, face challenges from synthetic resins that are derived from petroleum sources and rosin or wood sources. In the past, fossil resins from coal were produced by various companies, the last one being Hercules, Inc., which sold BLACKHAWK resin until a fire destroyed the plant in the mid 1970's. Approximately four to fjve million pounds of BLACKHAWK were produced and sold mostly to the printing ink industry. Uintaite, more commonly known as Gilsonite® resin, was widely used by various industries, notably in printing inks, coatings, stains, adhesives, foundry, asphalt paving, and oil well drilling muds. Gilsonite has lost market share over the last thirty years to various synthetic resins particularly hydrocarbon resins that are derived from petroleum sources.

Jan 1, 1990

By Camillo Premoli

Namibia is one of Africa's newest nations. A German colony until 1915, it then became a South African protectorate until 1990, when it gained independence after an armed struggle that lasted more than two decades. However, no trace of past bitterness can be found today in the capital, Windhoek, or in the countryside. Namibia is now one of the safest parts of Africa. Namibia's industrial base and infrastructure have been untouched by war. Swapo, the ruling party, has embarked on a successful policy of reconciliation and economic development. The GNP per capita is a surprising $1500 (from the World Bank), one of the highest in Africa. Namibia's population stands at 1.3 million, including about 100,000 whites. Namibia is a very sparsely populated country (1.7 inhabitants per km2). About 70% of the people are farmers. Namibia has a surface area of 824,232 km2 (318,261 sq miles), about the size of France and Germany combined. The semi-arid climate and generally flat morphology make the country well suited to mineral exploration. About 40% of the country presents abundant rock outcrops. The rest is buried under the Kalahari sands. However, this cover in most of the country hardly exceeds 200 m (655 ft), and Australian technology has shown that large mineral deposits (Roxby Downs) can nowadays be found at even greater depths. Mining is Namibia's largest industry. In 1991, it accounted for 22% of the country's GDP, about 70% to 80% of its exports by value and 25% of internally generated government revenues. The Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME) is responsible for formulating and implementing national mineral policies. This agency has recently introduced legislation aimed at encouraging new and long-term investment in the mineral sector. The variety of Namibian mineral resources, both metallic and nonmetallic, is rivaled by few countries worldwide.

Jan 1, 1994

By Rodrigo Peroni, Euler Victoria

Knowing the depth of contacts between weathering zones in phosphate mines is determinant to define the stripping ratios and the mineralized zones. Contacts are gradational and difficult to define even in the drillhole samples, so the combination with geostatistical simulation techniques helps to define the contact zone and the grade distribution, providing a way to assess the probability of the occurrence and the positioning of contacts between the barren waste and the ore zones. These inputs are used in the scheduling, anticipating risks associated with mine planning scenarios. The results from an application to a case study showed a good improvement when compared to traditional techniques.

Jun 25, 2023

By John Frostiak

The Campbell gold operation of Placer Dome Inc. produces an arsenopyrite-sulfide concentrate that must be treated by roasting, biooxidation or pressure oxidation to obtain high gold recoveries. Pressure oxidation is a proven process that also meets Ontario's stringent environmental regulations. A comparison of biooxidation and pressure oxidation was completed early in 1990. Placer Dome selected pressure oxidation as the preferred process to replace the roaster. The commercial plant design was based on technology supplied by Sherritt Gordon. In July of 1991, the existing roaster operation was shut down and a new pressure oxidation plant was commissioned. The Campbell Red Lake Mine, in Balmertown in northwestern Ontario, is the first plant in Canada to use Sherritt Gordon's pressure oxidation technology to recover gold from a refractory ore body. A similar process has been used at Sao Bento in Brazil since 1986. The Porgera complex in Papua New Guinea also uses Sherritt's technology. At the Campbell Mine, gold occurs as either free gold or is encapsulated with sulfide minerals, mainly arsenopyrite, pyrite and pyrrhotite. These sulfide species are recovered from the ore by crushing and grinding to 80% -75. µm (200 mesh), followed by flotation. About 40% of the gold in the ore is recovered by gravity separation. The remainder reports to the ground slurry feed to flotation. The flotation concentrate averages about 55 to 60 t/d (60 to 66 stpd). A typical analysis is shown in Table 1. Before the installation of the pressure oxidation plant, the flotation concentrate was treated in a two-stage, fluid bed roasting circuit. Roaster off-gases passed through two parallel sets of cyclones, followed by electrostatic precipitators. Arsenic trioxide was captured in a four-chamber baghouse before the gas was discharged to a stack. The arsenic trioxide was sold or conveyed to an underground storage vault. The roasted calcine was fed to a gravity separation circuit and then subjected to cyanide leaching. Gold was recovered from the filtered leach solution in a Merrill-Crowe zinc precipitation circuit.

Jan 1, 1992

By George A. Desborough, Stephen J. Sutley, Reinhard W. Leinz, Paul H. Briggs

The mode of occurrence of metals in mine wastes is investigated using sequential extractions. Metals are extracted from some or all of seven operationally-defined phases: water-soluble, ion-exchangeable, carbonate, amorphous Fe-oxide, crystalline Fe-oxide, sulfide, and silicate. The quantity of metals extracted from each phase varies with particle size. The presence of jarosite (potassium end-member formula, KFe3[SO4]2[OH]6) influences the selection of the procedure for extracting the crystalline Fe-oxide phase. Anglesite (PbSO4) and cerussite (PbCO3) are extracted as several phases. Extraction results can be explained only in part by X-ray diffraction (XRD) mineralogy because of lack of specificity of the extraction procedures, relatively high XRD detection limits, and the presence of 40% XRD-amorphous matter in each waste. The increasing chemical strength of the sequentially applied methods provides a basis for judging metal availability, water-soluble metals being most available and silicate-bound metals being least available.

Jan 1, 2000

By A. L. DeVegt, H. G. Bayer, C. J. Buisman

During the last ten years, Paques Inc. has been engaged in the development and installation of treatment systems to remove sulfur compounds from water and gaseous streams using biotechnological processes. Metal and sulfate can be removed from mine waters in two biological steps. In the first step, sulfate-reducing bacteria converts sulfate to hydrogen sulfide (H2S). The HS reacts with the dissolved metals to form insoluble metal sulfide precipitates. In the second step, sulfide-oxidizing bacteria convert excess H2S to elemental sulfur. The Budelco Zinc Refinery in The Netherlands installed a groundwater treatment system to remove metals and sulfate using the biological steps described above. The system has been operating since May 1992 and has been treating 5,000 m3/d (180 thousand cu ft/day). A pilot plant began operation in November 1995 at Kennecott's Bingham Canyon Utah copper mine to develop processes for metal and sulfate removal from groundwater and for the selective copper recovery from leach water. The principle of the biotechnological methods, the full-scale experience and an overview of the test program at the mine are presented

Jan 1, 1999

By Janusz S. Laskowski

Studies carried out over the last 10 years reveal that precipitating particles which may appear in alkaline solutions of long-chain amines and in acidic solutions of fatty acids exhibit clear isoelectric points around pH 10.6-1 1 for dodecylamine and around pH 2.5-3 for fatty acids. These colloidal species can accumulate at solid/liquid and liquid/gas interfaces and affect flotation. While the precipitate in solutions of fatty acids apparently can chemically interact with the mineral surfaces and is flotation-active if sufficiently long conditioning time is available, the cationic flotation of quartz in alkaline solutions is depressed by the colloidal precipitate. The experimental data available in literature on the adsorption, electrokinetic, contact angle and surface forces measurements in the solutions of the weak electrolyte collectors are analyzed and the role played by the precipitate is discussed. It is shown that these concepts allow for an explanation of the selective flotation of sylvite from halite with long-chain amines in potash ore flotation.

Jan 1, 1999

By K. A. Wheeler

To evaluate the effects on groundwater of a proposed in-pit disposal operation at an east Texas lignite mine, the local geologic, hydrogeologic, and geochemical features were thoroughly characterized. Resultant data were used in a flow and transport model (SWIFT) to simulate migration of the ash leachate. Computer simulations indicate that the leachate plume will travel 61-152 meters from the disposal area in 100 years after resaturation of the spoils. A 61-meter buffer zone of mine spoils without ash will surround the disposal area. The proposed landfill operation received regulatory approval and is currently operating as a Class 2 non-hazardous landfill.

Jan 1, 1994

By Fabio Mielli

The mining industry is a multifaceted industry with special characteristics that make efficient and intelligent operations uniquely challenging, and subsequently call for distinctive and tailored solutions. Not only does mining call for processes that are complicated and energy intensive, but complex material movements and an intricate logistical chain add to the industry?s obstacles in achieving sustainability and performance. This article explores three major challenges and the resulting issues currently being faced in the industry, as well as potential solutions to these impediments by use of energy management, automation and control strategies.

Jan 1, 2011

By James Yancik

The Howe Coal Company located in Leflore County, Oklahoma is mining the Oklahoma Lower Hartshorne Coal bed which ranges in thickness from 38" to 42" and dips approximately 7 degrees to the Northeast. The Lower Hartshorne bed lies within the Hartshorne sandstone in Oklahoma but is as much as 60 feet above this sandstone formation in Arkansas. This coal bed extends throughout the Arkansas Oklahoma coal basin, which is about 50 miles wide and 180 miles long and progresses from a semi anthracite in Arkansas to a low-volatile coal in the eastern part of the Oklahoma to a high-volatile coal in the western area. The Howe Mine #1 in the eastern area is mining a low-volatile bituminous coal which has been used as metallurgical coal since the early 1900's as evidence of Bee-hive coke ovens still remain near the town Howe, a few miles northwest of the mine site. The Howe Mine is the first mine in the area to use modern mining equipment, however, numerous punch mines have been worked along the outcrop south of the mine site dating from 1900 with the last closing in 1965. The coal characteristics of the Lower Hartshorne rival the Pocahontas seam in chemistry and coking qualities. This paper will be concerned with the preparation of the coal for the Japanese steel market. The three man crew necessary to operate the plant are the operator, the helper, and the equipment operator needed to feed the raw coal hopper. An additional equipment operator is available on the day shift for coal loading and moving the clean coal to the storage pile as the area under the clean coal belt is only large enough for 1 shifts production. We are at present running the plant on a 2 shift per day basis.

Jan 1, 1969

By N. J. Peberdy, C. N. Moreton, K. C. Garner

Introduction During the past decade a major objective of the process industry has been to use digital computer technology to improve plant operating efficiencies. This objective implied some form of optimization, a concept that has various interpretations depending on the view of the prospective user. For the purpose of this paper, optimization of a process plant is defined as the establishment and setting of plant operating conditions that maximize some mathematical yield function, i.e. maximum profit, minimum residue, etc. Analysis of these objectives and the available design and implementation techniques led to the conclusion that digital computer and optimization techniques are not the stumbling blocks, but rather the development and derivation of the mathematical models of the unit operations and process plants to be optimized. Such models should not only describe the optimized (steady-state) objective, but also how one steers to this state (control algorithm). Due to the multidisciplinary nature of the skills associated with the design and operation of process plants, the development of suitable models by a single discipline, such as the process control engineer, was found to be not only difficult but often impossible, due to budget and human resource limitations. To over-come these limitations, a computer aided design (CAD) tool has been developed. It aims to provide a productivity tool to the various disciplines, at the same time coordinating the technical input from each. The system described is but the starting point in an evolutionary development of a tool that, with use, is becoming more efficient and cost effective to use. Development has become an application engineering activity rather than the preserve of the computer specialist. Project phasing The development of a mathematical description of a process plant requires coordination of information from conceptual design to operation management. The activities required to build and operate a process plant are divided into four basic chronological activities or phases. These activities are often undertaken by different organizations and disciplines. As a result, continuity is often lost with the resultant loss of critical design data. The major activities are considered to be: conceptual and flowsheeting; detailing around the P & ID; building and commissioning; and plant operation. The CAD system described provides a design tool to be used for each of these activities, as well as providing continuity between the activities and the disciplines involved. The heart of the system is the dynamic simulation of the flowsheet. Each of the activities will be discussed, leading to two simple examples that demonstrate the use of the simulator. Figure 1 shows a schematic format of the various activities and the path followed by the dynamic flowsheet simulator in the life of a project. Flowsheet development The prime requirements in the design and develop¬ment of a process flowsheet are • selection of the correct unit operations to achieve the most economic (capital and operating) beneficiation of the specified reserve ; • the sizing of the unit operations to achieve the desired results, as a function of the projected feed rates etc., to handle the time related (dynamics) of the process; and • the production of a set of engineering documents showing the drawn and labeled flowsheet with an equipment list and process specification for each of the unit operations. The question may well be asked at this stage why dynamic flowsheet simulation should be considered when steady state modeling has been found to be adequate to date. With the increases encountered in the cost of capital, one often cannot afford the luxury of designing around the compounding worst case technique. Further, a more accurate design of the control surges can be achieved. No information is lost in that the steady state solution is in fact a subset of the dynamic model. In generalized state space modeling, the differential equations describing the process dynamics are illustrated in the following matrix notation: XDOT=A.X+B.U(1) Y =C.X+D.U(2) where XDOT describes the set of first order derivatives of the system state Vector, and X- is the system state Vector; A - is the system matrix operator which in the general nonlinear case is both a function of X and time ; U- is the process input vector; B - is the input mapping matrix; Y - is the set of observations; C - is the output mapping matrix which maps X - onto Y; and D- maps the input onto the observations. Thus, by time integration of the system dynamic equations, described in (1), the dynamic trajectory away from any set of initial conditions can be deter¬mined. Further, by finding the conditions at which XDOT = 0, the steady state solution can be determined.

Jan 1, 1987

By Jack G. Quade

During the summer and fall of 1973 a series of Skylab and high-altitude aircraft overflights provided excellent hard-copy photographs of the Great Basin. These photographs, with a wide range of ground resolution were used by the NASA Project of the University of Nevada, Reno, to conduct specific geologic studies. The principal objectives of these studies were to: select individual areas covered by Skylab photography for detailed studies, develop mapping techniques using varied film-filter products with a wide range of ground resolution, compare the results of the mapping techniques to existing geologic maps at comparable scales, verify the results wherever possible by direct field observations. These studies were conducted by Jack Quade and Dennis Trexler and by graduates and undergraduates of the Reno campus under a contract with the Manned Spacecraft Center Houston, Texas.

Jan 1, 1976

By Richard C. Corson

The objective of blending materials in a bedding pile is to reduce the variation in successive samples taken from the materials to be blended. In designing a bedding and reclaiming operation, several mechanisms are available to effect the reduction of variability, or increase in homogeneity, of the materials. These mechanisms can act before stacking, in the stacking process, in reclaiming and after reclaiming. In evaluating alternative methods of stacking and reclaiming, the potential user must judge each method on the basis of certain criteria; the capital cost of the equipment, the allowable absolute variability of the reclaimed product and the effectiveness of blending. Several stacking and reclaiming methods have been tested using a computer simulation. Based on the results of this program, factors were developed to describe the effectiveness of blending for chevron stacking of discrete materials and preblended materials, bucket wheel reclaiming and drum reclaiming. From these factors, the total effectiveness of a combined stacking and reclaiming system can be determined.

Jan 1, 1985

"The National Mining Hall of Fame and Museum (NMHFM) announced the 2018 National Mining Hall of Fame inductees. This year’s inductees, selected by the National Mining Hall of Fame’s Board of Governors, represent exploration, extraction, management, education and research and development in the U.S. mining industry. Their contributions have had significant and lasting impacts on the mineral and mining industry; these individuals were selected for being mavericks, thought leaders, researchers, educators, mentors, wealth builders and philanthropists.Professor John M. Guilbert, Dr. Leo J. Miller, Robert E. (Bob) Murray and Douglas (Doug) B. Silver will join 240 other mining industry luminaries when formally inducted into the National Mining Hall of Fame on Sept. 29, 2018. Additionally, the Prazen Living Legend of Mining Award will be presented to the Freeport- McMoRan Foundation. The 31st Annual Induction Banquet and Ceremony will be held at the Ritz-Carlton in Denver, CO.2018 National Mining Hall of Fame inducteesProfessor John M. Guilbert was a renowned geologist and professor of economic geology at the University of Arizona; he had a distinguished 50-plus year career in academia and business. Guilbert, together with J. David Lowell, worked on the most important breakthrough in mineral exploration in the last 100 years, the Porphyry Copper Model. This work, known as the Lowell and Guilbert Model, was utilized by exploration geologists worldwide over the next four decades to discover hundreds of millions of tons of copper metal and numerous profitable mines including the prosperous Bajo de la Alumbrera copper mine in Argentina. Guilbert was a founder of The World Museum of Mining in Butte, MT. He was the recipient of countless awards including the Society of Economic Geologists (SEG) R.A.F. Penrose Medal as well as the D.C. Jackling Award from the SME.Dr. Leo J. Miller was a maverick in the mining industry and no armchair geologist. He believed that active fieldwork, on foot with a rock pick, was indispensable for exploration. His basic tenet was to absorb as much information about an exploration target up front, formulate ideas – sometimes novel ones — and then get out into the field to prove those ideas. Miller was known to diverge from the standard interpretation of the geological processes, which formed the mineral deposits, and to apply innovative applications of high-tech tools to more usual exploration programs. This approach resulted in a 50-plus year career that included the discovery of the Kidd Creek massive sulfide deposit and the development of the Lee Creek phosphate deposit; which other explorers had previously given up on, believing whatever phosphate might be present would be too difficult and expensive to mine. The recipient of many honors and awards, Miller received the SME Robert M. Dreyer award in recognition of outstanding achievement in ore discoveries."

Jan 8, 2018

By N. Sahin, M. Can, Z. Ekmekçi, Y. Öztürk, Ö. Biçak, I. B. Çelik, B. Kocabiyik

"In this paper, a case study from Çayeli Bakir Isletmeleri A.S. (Rize, Turkey) about the selective flotation of copper minerals from sphalerite is discussed. Çayeli Cu-Zn Sulfide Ore contains different ore types, such as yellow ore, clastic ore, bornite-clastic ore, bornite-yellow ore, and black ore. For some of these ore types, selective flotation of copper and zinc is very difficult presumably due to presence of secondary copper minerals such as bornite, chalcocite and covellite, and also surface oxidation. These factors affect Cu-Zn selectivity due to activation of sphalerite particles in the ore during the process. The main objective of this work was to improve Cu-Zn selectivity by optimization of the pulp chemistry for different ore types of Çayeli ore. After preliminary flotation tests investigating effects of different chemical conditions, a plant survey was performed to determine the plant performance and sources of the problems when problematic bornite-clastic ore is treated in the plant. Various chemical conditions are tested in the laboratory scale test for better depression of sphalerite in copper flotation circuit. Combination of Na2S+ZnSO4+MBS was found to be the most effective depressant scheme. INTRODUCTION Ore variability is one of the most important factors affecting performance of a process plant both in short and long term planning. The geometallurgical modelling becomes a common tool to determine ore variability problems and develop the most efficient solution during life of mine (1, 2). Flowsheet design and equipment selection and sizing are usually done based on the results of ore variability test works. However, in some cases ore variability may not be foreseen during the design stage and therefore the solutions should be developed based on the existing flowsheet and equipment in the plant. In this situation, ore characterisation, problem statement and diagnostic testing should be applied step by step. The problem could be due to changing feed grade, mineralogical characteristics, grindability and surface characteristics when flotation is involved. The variability in feed grade with fixed mineralogy can be handled with relatively simple modifications (i.e. adjusting throughput or equipment capacity) in the plant. Variability in ore mineralogy is the most complex and difficult problem to tackle. Because, mineralogical variations could bring variations in mineral composition, texture and liberation. These variations can potentially lead to the variations in grindability of the ore and flotation behaviour. Variations in grindability are usually managed by optimization of operational parameters in grinding circuit, as it would be costly to replace the existing equipment in the circuit (3). The variations in flotation behaviour are mainly due to variations in mineral types and distribution, texture and surface oxidation. One or all of these factors could be observed in a flotation operation. Therefore, a comprehensive investigation both in plant and lab scale should be conducted for definition of source of the problem. The testwork to solve the problem and retrieve the performance is planned and conducted depending on the source of the problem (4, 5)."

Jan 1, 2017

By V. A. Shea-Albin

Sandstone escarpments surrounding western coal-bearing plateaus serve as critical habitat for animal species. Effects of mining subsidence on escarpment stability are not well documented; therefore, regulatory agencies may limit extraction of coal reserves underlying escarpments. Because millions of tons of this coal exist on Federal Lands, associated public revenues from Federal royalties, and valuable coal reserves, risk being lost. The U. S. Bureau of Mines is using numerical modeling techniques to analyze effects of subsidence on escarpment stability. Finite element models that incorporate bedding plane slip, gob formation, and movement along joints simulate escarpment subsidence observed in the field.

Jan 1, 1994

By P. Hornby, S. Henley

INTRODUCTION The project described in this paper is designed to provide a standard and flexible method by which data can be exchanged among different systems and packages in common use for geo- logical modelling and mine planning, with substantial savings in ad hoc programming which is expensive and produces interface software that is difficult to maintain. Such packages include specialised applications such as Vulcan, Surpac, Datamine, and Gemcom software, and the Whittle pit optimisation programs, and more general products such as AutoCad, Microstation, and Maplnfo, and database management systems through a generic SQL interface. The data translator is built around the CSIRO Data Model and GeoEditor, and will make widely available the benefits of the Data Model by adding functionality to its implementation in an industry- standard language and style, with interfaces to important geological and mining software products used by the industry, while including also the visualisation and editing capabilities of the GeoEditor which provides the functional framework within which the Data Translator is developed. The Data Translator is intelligent in the sense that it is not a black-box solution but allows visualisation and validation of data during transfer; furthermore it provides a means for changing abstraction levels during the transfer operation. There have been few similar efforts to address this problem. It is not a problem which is likely to be solved in any general or long- term way by any individual commercial software vendor. THE CSIRO DATA MODEL A wide variety of software tools have entered the exploration and mining industries via different pathways. Examination of these pathways and the origins of the software illuminates the types of data transfer problems and difficulties which might occur in the day to day life of exploration and mining operations. In exploration, the focus is normally on a large area (>5000km2) which is explored primarily in two dimensions. For 20 exploration purposes, geographical information systems (GIs) software, image processing software, and, in some cases, 20 computer aided design (CAD) software have been employed. Typically, GIs soft- ware is used the most by lands and tenements personnel and government geological survey organisations, image processing software is used the most by geophysicists, and 20 CAD software is used the most by drafting and geology personnel. In contrast, within the mining environment, almost all activities have 3D character. In this realm, 3D CAD software and specialised mine planning and design software are important. Specialised mine planning and design software is similar to 30 CAD software, but typically has additional capabilities such as specialised modules for surveying, drill hole data operations, open pit design and optimisation, underground mine design, mining block model creation, and/or ore reserve calculations. Unfortunately, the different origins of the software in exploration and mining lead directly to problems in data exchange and the design of seamless software systems. These problems result from the different data management strategies employed by the different classes of software. In order to address these problems, CSIRO Exploration and Mining and CSIRO Division of Information Technology have been investigating the structure, character, and syntax of data and soft- ware present in computer-aided exploration and mining activities since early 1993. The goal of this effort is to 1) systematically ex- amine the breadth and depth of the data in use within exploration and mining, and to 2) promote a data organisation strategy which is broad enough and comprehensive enough to enable wiser soft- ware design and easier data transfer. In the short term a data model can be used to improve data transfer; in the longer term it is hoped that a data model framework will help object-oriented concepts to enter the next generation of geoscientific software. The data model is described in more detail by Power et al., 1995. THE DATA TRANSLATOR PROJECT The CSIRO Data Model provides a basis for a very wide range of applications in geology and mining. It has been developed over the past two years by a joint team from the Division of Exploration and Mining and the Division of Information Technology, and its principal purpose is to provide a comprehensive and self consistent model of the geometric and topological properties of geological and mining data. The project is being carried out by CSIRO with the support of Australian mining companies through AMIRA (the Australian Mining Industries Research Association). Eight companies are sup- porting the project : • North Ltd Minenco • MIM Exploration • Fractal Graphics • BHP Australia Coal • Pacific Coal • Gencor CRA Exploration The systems to be interfaced have been decided by comparing the priorities of the various sponsors, to produce a final combined priority list as follows : • Vulcan • Minescape • Micromine • Mapinfo INTRODUCTION The project described in this paper is designed to provide a standard and flexible method by which data can be exchanged among different systems and packages in common use for geo- logical modelling and mine planning, with substantial savings in ad hoc programming which is expensive and produces interface software that is difficult to maintain. Such packages include specialised applications such as Vulcan, Surpac, Datamine, and Gemcom software, and the Whittle pit optimisation programs, and more general products such as AutoCad, Microstation, and Maplnfo, and database management systems through a generic SQL interface. The data translator is built around the CSIRO Data Model and GeoEditor, and will make widely available the benefits of the Data Model by adding functionality to its implementation in an industry- standard language and style, with interfaces to important geological and mining software products used by the industry, while including also the visualisation and editing capabilities of the GeoEditor which provides the functional framework within which the Data Translator is developed. The Data Translator is intelligent in the sense that it is not a black-box solution but allows visualisation and validation of data during transfer; furthermore it provides a means for changing abstraction levels during the transfer operation. There have been few similar efforts to address this problem. It is not a problem which is likely to be solved in any general or long- term way by any individual commercial software vendor. THE CSIRO DATA MODEL A wide variety of software tools have entered the exploration and mining industries via different pathways. Examination of these pathways and the origins of the software illuminates the types of data transfer problems and difficulties which might occur in the day to day life of exploration and mining operations. In exploration, the focus is normally on a large area (>5000km2) which is explored primarily in two dimensions. For 20 exploration purposes, geographical information systems (GIs) software, image processing software, and, in some cases, 20 computer aided design (CAD) software have been employed. Typically, GIs soft- ware is used the most by lands and tenements personnel and government geological survey organisations, image processing software is used the most by geophysicists, and 20 CAD software is used the most by drafting and geology personnel. In contrast, within the mining environment, almost all activities have 3D character. In this realm, 3D CAD software and specialised mine planning and design software are important. Specialised mine planning and design software is similar to 30 CAD software, but typically has additional capabilities such as specialised modules for surveying, drill hole data operations, open pit design and optimisation, underground mine design, mining block model creation, and/or ore reserve calculations. Unfortunately, the different origins of the software in exploration and mining lead directly to problems in data exchange and the design of seamless software systems. These problems result from the different data management strategies employed by the different classes of software. In order to address these problems, CSIRO Exploration and Mining and CSIRO Division of Information Technology have been investigating the structure, character, and syntax of data and soft- ware present in computer-aided exploration and mining activities since early 1993. The goal of this effort is to 1) systematically ex- amine the breadth and depth of the data in use within exploration and mining, and to 2) promote a data organisation strategy which is broad enough and comprehensive enough to enable wiser soft- ware design and easier data transfer. In the short term a data model can be used to improve data transfer; in the longer term it is hoped that a data model framework will help object-oriented concepts to enter the next generation of geoscientific software. The data model is described in more detail by Power et al., 1995. THE DATA TRANSLATOR PROJECT The CSIRO Data Model provides a basis for a very wide range of applications in geology and mining. It has been developed over the past two years by a joint team from the Division of Exploration and Mining and the Division of Information Technology, and its principal purpose is to provide a comprehensive and self consistent model of the geometric and topological properties of geological and mining data. The project is being carried out by CSIRO with the support of Australian mining companies through AMIRA (the Australian Mining Industries Research Association). Eight companies are sup- porting the project : • North Ltd Minenco • MIM Exploration • Fractal Graphics • BHP Australia Coal • Pacific Coal • Gencor CRA Exploration The systems to be interfaced have been decided by comparing the priorities of the various sponsors, to produce a final combined priority list as follows : • Vulcan • Minescape • Micromine • Mapinfo • Medsystem

Jan 1, 1996

In order to overcome some of the deficiencies associated with conventional fine coal cleaning methods, a novel process known as microbubble column flotation (MICROCEL?) was developed at Virginia Tech. This article provides an overview of recent commercialization efforts and in-plant testing of this technology. The results of the in-plant test work indicate that the MICROCEL technology offers several advantages for the upgrading of difficult to clean coals. The test data have also been used to develop guidelines for the design of coal flotation columns and to validate existing scale-up procedures.

Jan 1, 1991

By D. J. Beeby

California's Surface Mining and Reclamation Act (SMARA) was passed in 1975 to identify and protect mineral resources in areas of high land-use conflict and ensure reclamation of mined lands. Under SMARA, aggregate resource availability is quantified and compared to forecasted demand in specific market regions. Fifteen regions studied thus far cover 20,000 square miles and contain 50 billion tons of high-quality aggregate resources which have been legally designated as ?regionally significant?, providing a measure of protection previously unavailable. SMARA reports and State testimony at local hearings have supplied objective information and helped reduce conflict in mine-permitting decisions.

Jan 1, 1987

By J. Lancaster

World demand of sulphur-in-all-forms (SAF), which in 1985 is estimated to total 57.5 million tonnes S equivalent, is expected to increase to 77.6 million tonnes S by the year 2000. Key factors are the evolution of sulphur demand in the USSR, China, and the developing countries notably India, Brazil, and the countries in North Africa and the Near East with vertically integrated phosphate industries. Brimstone will remain the dominant sulphurous raw material notwithstanding the progressive increase in the supply and use of sulphur in other forms resulting mainly from the enhanced recovery df pollution sulphur and the increased use of sulphur in pyrites in those countries with this sulphur resource. Sulphur demand for phosphate fertilizer manufacture is expected to have the main impact on world sulphur demand, but in contrast to the industrially advanced countries where non- fertilizer sulphur use is not expected to increase measurably, this demand sector is expected to be of some importance in those developing countries with dynamic economies and in the centrally planned economies of East Europe and the Far East.

Jan 1, 1986