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By Steven D. Scott

Stephen D. Scott Steven Scott is a Professor of Geology, Director of the Marine Geology Research Laboratory and, until May 1997, was Chairman for 9 years of Geological and Mining Engineering, all at the University of Toronto. Steve also holds a cross appointment at the University of Western Brittany's European University Institute of the Sea in Brest, France. He was educated at the University of Western Ontario (B.Sc. and M.Sc.) and at Penn State (Ph.D.). Steve is a geologist/oceanographer specializing in base and precious metal massive sulfide deposits which he and his students have studied on five continents and on the bottom of three oceans. He was the first ore deposits geologist and first Canadian to witness "black smokers" on the ocean floor. Since 1982, he has participated on 21 oceanographic surface and submersible expeditions, many of them as Chief Scientist. His research team is currently carrying out projects in the W and NE Pacific Ocean. Steve has published more than 150 research papers and lectured in more than a dozen counties. Popularized accounts of his work have appeared in various media.. He has been honored by several awards and distinguished lectureships. Steve is President of the Canadian Scientific Submersible Facility, which operates the Canadian ROPOS robotic submersible, and is President of the International Marine Minerals Society.

Jan 1, 1998

The Brothers hydrothermal system is host to two very contrasting vent fields and to date, is the only known example of this kind for any submarine arc volcano in the world. Firstly, there is the NW caldera field. It is perched on the caldera walls and is up to 1,200 years old, and represents a more ?mature? system dominated by water/rock interactions, though there is also evidence for magmatic contributions to the hydrothermal fluids. It is host to relatively high temperature (~300°C), focused venting of metal-rich fluids. Large Cu- and Zn-rich sulfide chimneys occur at this site, with high concentrations (up to 90 ppm) Au apparent in some chimneys. Vent fluids of the NW caldera site show sub-seafloor phase separation is occurring at this site. Silica concentrations in these vent fluids are consistent with the vent fluid temperatures. Secondly, there is the cone vent field that is much younger, and which sits atop the summits of a main cone (the Upper cone) and an adjacent satellite cone (the Lower cone) that occur inside the caldera, near the southern caldera walls. This field is dominated by S-rich vents with vent fluids more diffuse, lower in temperature (<120°C), very gassy and acidic (to pH 1.9), and relatively metal-poor. Fluids of the cone site have Mg and SO4 concentrations higher than seawater values, indicating these ions have been added to the hydrothermal fluid and are not being depleted via normal water/rock interactions. Variability occurs between the two cone vent fields, with the diffuse discharge observed at the Upper cone volumetrically small and chemically different from the Lower cone. For example, from the vent fluid Mn, Li, Rb, and Cs concentrations, it is apparent that the Lower cone has experienced a lower degree of water/rock interaction (i.e., more reaction) than the Upper cone. Vent fluid pH is higher for Lower cone, consistent with more reaction and neutralization of acidic gases. Fe/Mn is lower at the Lower cone due to decreased Fe solubility at the higher pH. The lowest pH sample (1.9) is from the Upper cone that has 39.4 mmol/kg of SO4, consistent with input of magmatic SO2 and disproportionation to sulfuric acid and S or H2S. Thus, the Upper cone site could be interpreted to have a shorter reaction path and residence time between the point of magmatic degassing and the seafloor venting than the Lower cone site. Isotopic compositions of the NW caldera and cone vent fluids show evidence for magmatic water with negative dD and d180 values, while 3He/4He values show the Brothers hydrothermal system has shifted towards more magmatic conditions over the past several years with both sites affected by magmatic events. Similarly, vent fluid sulfide d34S values and those for sulfide minerals from NE caldera chimneys also indicate disproportionation reactions involving magmatic SO2. Minerals such as chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, covelllite and euhedral grains of hematite occurring in high temperature chimneys from the NW caldera site are consistent with a more oxidizing, magmatic fluid, while bulk sulfide geochemistry data show evidence for a higher temperature suite of elements (e,g., Mo, Co, Se) associated with Cu-rich chimneys. Gold mineralization occurs in these high temperature chimneys and is associated with the most recent deposition of high concentrations of Cu, where d34S values are most negative. Geophysical evidence suggests that the top of a magma chamber occurs ~2.5 km below the caldera floor, beneath the cone site in the SSE quadrant of the volcano. Very low velocities of <1 km-2 are seen in the seismic data between the magma and the seafloor, and are indicative of gas release. Harmonic tremor data provide evidence for a 500 m pipe-like ?conduit? located above the magma chamber (and below the cone), linking it with the overlying hydrothermal system, providing a mechanism for magma-derived metals to enter the hydrothermal system under the cone site. The NW caldera and cone sites are considered to represent stages along a continuum between magmatic-hydrothermal and water/rock-dominated end-members.

Jan 1, 2010

By Charles L. Morgan

The Minerals Management Service of the U.S. Department of the Interior and the State of Hawaii Department of Planning and Economic Development are investigating the cobalt-rich ferromanganese oxide crust deposits found within the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) of the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll. The objective of this investigation is to complete a preliminary resource assessment and an Environmental Impact Statement for potential leasing of mineral rights to these crusts. The results of this effort will be summarized and published in a Draft Environmental Impact Statement in March 1986. Three oceanographic cruises to deposit sites in the Hawaiian Islands EEZ were conducted by the University of Hawaii in 1984. As a result, data and sample analysis yielded the following resource estimates (in thousand tonnes): (1) total crusts - 378,500; (2) cobalt - 2,500; (3) manganese - 76,200; (4) iron - 59,700; and (5) nickel - 1,400. These estimates do not include key factors such as deposit continuity, recoverability, and environmental sensitivity. A preliminary attempt to quantify some of these factors for one particular deposit is in progress and will consist of detailed field studies followed by laboratory analysis. Similar evaluations of the Johnston Island EEZ have also begun and are based upon field work conducted by West German researchers and the U.S. Geological Survey. The Johnston Island EEZ appears to have crust resources about as large as those contained in the entire Hawaiian EEZ.

Jan 1, 1985

By Natalia Konstantinova, Kira Mizell, James R. Hein, Georgy Cherkashov

"Ferromanganese crusts and nodules from the Amerasian basin of the Arctic Ocean are characterized by a unique composition compared to crusts formed elsewhere in the global ocean (Konstantinova et al., 2017; Hein et al., 2017). One of the most significant differences from global ocean crusts is the high detrital mineral content; mass balance calculations show that it may be as high as 35% in some samples (Hein et al., 2017).These Arctic Ocean Fe-Mn crusts also typically have three distinct megascopic layers, except for thin crusts; less commonly, four layers are noted for thick crusts. The age of initiation of Fe-Mn crust growth in the Amerasia Basin varies from 14.8 Myr to 0.7 Myr ago based on the Manheim and Lane-Bostwick (1988) Co chronometer, Be isotopes, and Th excess methods (Dausmann et al., 2015; Konstantinova et al., 2017; Hein et al., 2017).Samples and MethodsFourteen Fe-Mn crust samples recovered on Russian and U.S. research cruises were chosen for analyses based on their morphology, composition, water depth, genetic type, and location in Amerasia Basin. Seven samples from four distant dredge sites along Mendeleev Ridge and seven samples from four locations on the Chukchi Borderland are included (Fig. 1). Dredge site water depths vary from 3850 to 2100 m with the deepest samples from the Chukchi Borderland. Many of the selected samples were described in previous publications (Konstantinova et al., 2017; Hein et al., 2017)."

Jan 1, 2017

By Subramanian Rajendran

Placer minerals are one of the rich natural resources readily made available primarily and broadly in the form of inland placers, beach placers and offshore placers. The exploitation of placer minerals goes back in the history for a period of time immemorial in the form of alluvial placer mining. In India only 35% of coast has been scanned for beach placer minerals. The buried inland placers and offshore placers have not been given due attention. Integrated management and sustainable development of coastal and Open Ocean including the EEZ are of great importance to us. Judicious exploitation of non-renewable mineral resources plays an increasingly important role with regard to future economic and social development. This calls for newer techniques for exploring and analyzing more the seafloor. Though India could remain in the placer mining for the last four decades through the establishment of the Indian Rare Earth in both east and west coasts, the lack of necessary dynamism to expand such industry and catch the world market points out a significant setback. It is highly essential to establish the major trends of paleo-beaches, since some of them are definite to contain highly rich heavy mineral placers comparable to the one being mined by beach scraping. Placer deposits of heavy minerals occur in discontinuous patches on the beaches along the West Coast of India. In recent years the National Institute of Oceanography, India and the Geological Survey of India attempted to invest on nearshore placer exploration by applying the integrated survey techniques.

Jan 1, 2001

By K. Vanstaen, K. M. Cooper, S. Ware, S. L. Boyd

Remediation and restoration of offshore marine habitats is a relatively new concept with attempts in European regions largely being instigated by requirements of various strategic directives including Article 2 of the Habitats Directive (1992), the EC Water Framework Directive (2000, Article 2 of the OSPAR Convention (1992) and the developing European Marine Strategy Directive. A field experiment to establish the practicality of various options for rehabilitating the seabed on the cessation of dredging has been successfully set-up. The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the practicality and effectiveness of gravel seeding as a potential restorative method which could be applied at marine aggregate extraction sites following cessation of dredging. Zone 2, within Area 408 (offshore Humber) was chosen as the experimental site as there is some evidence for persistence of sand which may have resulted from screening operations at this site.

Aug 24, 2006

By Benjamin W. Haynes

The Federal government has a lengthy history in supporting and conducting research in the ocean mining and minerals field. The Federal effort has been and is currently focused primarily in four agencies: the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) within the Department of Commerce, and the Geological Survey (USGS), the Bureau of Mines (BuMines), and more recently the Minerals Management Service (MMS) within the Department of the Interior. While NOAA and the USGS have played dominant roles in mapping and geologic studies, and the MMS has recently provided funding for several task force studies within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) , the Bureau of Mines has conducted research in mining technology, minerals processing, resource definition, and economic evaluation of minerals from the seabed for over 20 years. These studies have yielded considerable minerals information regarding manganese nodules and crusts, placers, mineral sands, phosphorites, and sulfides. This paper reviews the past achievements in ocean mining and minerals programs starting in the late 1960&apos;s, describes current research and information efforts, and presents an outlook for Bureau of Mines research and information gathering efforts. Specific topics

Jan 1, 1989

By K. Vanstaen, K. M. Cooper, S. Ware, S. L. Boyd

Remediation and restoration of offshore marine habitats is a relatively new concept with attempts in European regions largely being instigated by requirements of various strategic directives including Article 2 of the Habitats Directive (1992), the EC Water Framework Directive (2000, Article 2 of the OSPAR Convention (1992) and the developing European Marine Strategy Directive. A field experiment to establish the practicality of various options for rehabilitating the seabed on the cessation of dredging has been successfully set up. The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the practicality and effectiveness of gravel seeding as a potential restorative method that can be applied at marine aggregate extraction sites following cessation of dredging. Zone 2, within Area 408 (offshore Humber) was chosen as the experimental site as there is some evidence for persistence of sand which may have resulted from screening operations at this site.

By J. W. Jamieson

INTRODUCTION Hydrothermal vents that form seafloor massive sulfide (SMS) deposits represent unique biodiversity hotspots that host many species that are found only at these sites. The destruction of these habitats remains one of the greatest environmental risks associated with proposed mining of SMS deposits. For this reason, there is a growing movement to protect active vent sites from direct and indirect effects of seafloor mining (Van Dover et al., 2018). Mitigating the adverse effects of mining on these ecosystems may prove to be one of the greatest challenges facing the marine minerals industry. At the same time, there is increasing evidence that inactive or extinct hydrothermal systems, which do not host the density or diversity of animals typical of active vents, may constitute a significant proportion of the SMS resource potential on the seafloor. Mining inactive SMS deposits may therefore present an extractive opportunity that does not necessitate the disturbance or destruction of active vent habitats. However, if mining of SMS deposits is to take place only at inactive vent sites in order to protect active vent ecosystems, a clear definition of what defines a site as active or inactive is necessary. ACTIVE AND INACTIVE SEAFLOOR MASSIVE SULFIDE DEPOSITS Our understanding of the number of inactive deposits, their size and grades, and how they are preserved on the seafloor remains limited, largely due to the challenges associated with finding these deposits. Over 90% of all hydrothermal vent fields discovered so far are hydrothermally-active. Almost all of these sites were discovered through the detection of chemical anomalies associated with active hydrothermal venting via water column surveys. Inactive sites have no associated hydrothermal plume, and thus the well- established plume survey exploration method is not effective. As a result, very few truly inactive sites inactive sites have been discovered. Alternative exploration methods, such as spontaneous potential (SP) surveys, magnetic surveys, and high-resolution mapping are required (Cherkashev et al., 2013; Jamieson et al., 2014; Tivey and Johnson, 2002). As methods for locating inactive deposits continue to develop, our understanding of the distribution and resource potential of these deposits will increase, and the focus of resource exploration will shift from active to inactive vent sites. However, for now, most exploration and deposit development activities remain focused on active vent fields.

Jan 1, 2018

By Ian B. Corbett

De Beers Marine Pty Ltd. (South Africa) (DEBMARINE), a wholly owned subsidiary of De Beers Consolidated Mines Ltd. specializes in the provision of contracting and consulting services for offshore diamond exploration, Mineral Resource Management and mining. Established in 1983, the company is strongly focused on driving and sustaining growth of the offshore diamond mining industry into the 21st century. DEBMARINE provides full Mineral Resource Management and produce almost half a million carats annually for the Namibian Diamond Corporation (Pty) Ltd. from their offshore mining licence. The company is also extensively involved in feasibility studies to establish new mining ventures and in the exploration of several offshore Prospecting Licence Areas for other clients. As a pioneer in this field, DEBMARINE remains highly focused on technological development. A specialized section, the Technical Development Business Unit, has been established. Through relationships with various technology leaders, this unit develops new sub-sea mining technology and delivers productivity innovations aimed at realizing maximized carat extraction. This talk provides a broad perspective on the development of the Namibian offshore deposits and examines the critical role played by high-resolution orebody characterization and high-confidence Mineral Resource development at De Beers Marine.

Jan 1, 1998

By C. H. Hobbs

A recently completed series of projects funded by the Commonwealth of Virginia and the U.S. Minerals Management Service was designed to assess the distribution of heavy minerals on the inner continental shelf adjacent to Virginia. These projects indicate that a suite of minerals of both strategic and economic interest is present. Analysis of several hundred grab and core samples shows that zircon, monazite, and titanium minerals (ilmenite, rutile, and leucoxene) occur in quantities that probably warrant further study by the mineral industry. Furthermore, side-scan sonography and shallow seismic profiles have provided information on the thickness and areal extent of the mineral-bearing sands. Possible development of the resource is enhanced by a potential use of offshore sand for beach nourishment. The results of the preliminary studies have been presented in open-file publications and oral reports in order that the mineral industry might have an up to date basis upon which to consider more exploratory work. Much of the effort south of the mouth of Chesapeake Bay was made in cooperation with and enhanced by an independent study of sand resources for beach nourishment and other needs. Preliminary review of the quantitative analyses of the heavy-mineral content of several hundred samples demonstrates that the distribution of high concentrations is non-uniform. From core data, the greatest abundances of some economic heavy minerals (ilmenite, rutile, leucoxene, monazite, and

Jan 1, 1988

By Tetsuo Yamazaki

Deep-sea rare-earth element-rich mud (REE Mud) distributes in pelagic clayey sediment column on ocean seafloor at 4,000-6,000 m deep. The thickness ranges 5-80 m and the burial depth 0-100 m. The REE content ranges 600-2,250 ppm in Pacific and one of the richest, maximum 6,500ppm, has been found in Marcus Is. exclusive economic zone. By applying a conventional hydraulic excavation and lifting methods, the economy of REE Mud mining around Marcus Is. is preliminary examined. Because the waste content in REE Mud is high and the disposal cost in Japan is very expensive, the mining is recognized far away from economy.

Sep 14, 2011

By Justin C. I. Baulch

In October 2004 Placer Dome entered into an exploration farm-in agreement with Nautilus Minerals, to explore for Submarine Massive Sulphide (SMS) deposits on Nautilus? PNG exploration tenements. Placer/Nautilus currently holds approximately 15,000 km2 of tenements in PNG waters, either granted or under application, covering all reported seafloor hydrothermal vent occurrences.

Jan 1, 2005

By Jorge MRS Relvas

Recent research both on active and fossil systems has demonstrated that shallow subseafloor replacement processes are not only viable depositional mechanisms for massive sulfide mineralization, but likely contributed as a major component of the mineralization occurring in large VHMS deposits and in many present-day seafloor hydrothermal systems. In the giant Neves Corvo deposit, as in many others VHMS deposits of the Iberian Pyrite Belt, there is overwhelming evidence for silicate-sulfide replacement processes being largely responsible for the efficiency of the ore-forming systems and huge size of the deposits. Textural evidences at all scales, coupled with a well-constrained mass-balance geochemical analysis, indicate that extensive replacement in the lavadominated volcanic rocks of the footwall sequence, and disseminated replacement mineralization in the volcaniclastic and/or sedimentary units were major mechanisms of ore formation in the Neves Corvo deposit. Shallow metal deposition prior to fluid discharge on the seafloor is likely to play a major role in seafloor massive sulfide mineralization. This premise should be envisaged as critical in evaluating the economic potential of seafloor resources, and should certainly be part of the equation when plans for seafloor mineral exploration missions are drawn.

Sep 14, 2011

By Alexander Malahoff

Field observations and sampling of land-based and submarine hydrothermal and geothermal sites show a definite link between the geological setting, fluid geochemistry and specialized assemblages of microorganisms found at these settings. Three initial sites have been chosen as a basis for these studies. The first site is located on hydrothermal vents in pit craters on the submarine volcano Lo?ihi (Hawai?i) at a water depth of 1,300 meters. The second site is within the geothermally active vents, ponds and lakes of the Taupo Volcanic Zone of New Zealand. The third site extends along the chain of volcanically and hydrothermally active volcanoes of the Kermadec-Tonga arc and back-arc system. To focus our work in New Zealand, a geomicrobiology field and experimental center has been established in Wairakei, New Zealand, with the relevant genomics, proteomic and bioinformatics work being conducted at the University of Hawaii. As part of a partnership between the University of Hawai?i, the Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences (GNS) and Victoria University of Wellington, a new interdisciplinary graduate course in geomicrobiology will be taught at Victoria University beginning next year. Since mineral-microbial interactions have been occurring for the past few billion years and these interactions have led to where one generates the other, a metal-bacteria research program has been initiated at GNS using arsenic-gold and other metal-bacterial interaction processes as a research objective. In this research program, we have completed the full genome of a new species of marine bacterium Idiomarina loihiensis from the Lo?ihi hydrothermal vents and identified specialized microorganisms living in pH 0.3 geothermal vent waters of White Island, New Zealand. The multidisciplinary approach to study the process of accumulation of metals in the hydrothermal systems clearly shows the path of how bacterial-mineral interaction can precipitate metal deposits. These studies will lead to new avenues for biomining, bioremediation and the understanding of the origins of life.

Jan 1, 2004

By Samantha Whisman, James R. Hein

Hydrothermal marine manganese-oxide deposits (HMMD) are cemented and variously replaced volcaniclastic and biogenic sediments that were mineralized by distal, low- temperature, hydrothermal fluids. HMMD predominantly form below the seabed as sediment-hosted statabound deposits but can also form on the seabed. These deposits form at oceanic and back-arc basin spreading centers, volcanic arcs, and mid-place hotspot volcanoes. HMMD have traditionally not been considered to have an economic potential because they were considered to be devoid of economically valuable critical elements. This contrasts with their non-hydrothermal counterparts, ferromanganese crusts and nodules, which are enriched in many critical elements. However, manganese is now one of the critical metals and HMMD have the highest manganese contents (up to 55% Mn, so- called battery-grade Mn) of all the types of deep-ocean mineral deposits. There is a growing demand for this critical metal and an upward trend exists in the price of manganese on the global market. Also, other critical elements can occur in high concentrations in some HMMD and their economic potential has not been considered, especially for lithium (up to 0.17%) and molybdenum (up to 0.24%), but also vanadium (to 820 ppm), chromium (to 346 ppm), and nickel (to 0.45%), among others. Which of these critical elements are enriched and their concentrations depend on the types of rocks leached at depth by the hydrothermal fluids, the composition of hydrothermal minerals precipitated in the higher temperature parts of the circulation system, and the types of sediments mineralized by the manganese oxides. For example, mineralization of a carbonate sediment resulted in the highest lithium contents, whereas leaching of ultramafic rocks at depth as a rule results in the highest chromium and nickel contents in the HMMD. These deposits are known to be widespread, especially in volcanic arcs, but their lateral and vertical extents and consequently size, tonnage, and grade have not been determined. Most samples of hydrothermal deposits have been collected by dredging and therefore the in situ relationships often are not known. One sample from the Mariana volcanic arc, west Pacific, was collected by ROV at 1274 m water depth from a layered outcrop 6.6 m thick that may be a sequence of pervasively mineralized volcaniclastic layers and offers the first clue as to the potential vertical extent that these deposits may attain. However, only the top ~0.4 m-thick layer was sampled, so it is not known whether the mineralization extents throughout the outcrop. Although large manganese deposits of various origins occur on the continents, they consist of manganese carbonates, silicates, or complex mixtures of manganese minerals. In contrast, marine hydrothermal HMMD exhibit relatively simple mineralogy that would make processing of this potential ore much simpler.

Jan 1, 2018

By Alexander Malahoff

An international research team working through the Hawai?i Undersea Research Laboratory (HURL) undertook a bold challenge to explore the chemistry, geology, mineral formation and superheated hydrothermal vents of the Kermadec Island Arc. With the mothership, R/V Ka?imikai-o-Kanaloa, scientists from six research institutions explored the active submarine volcanoes stretching over a line of volcanoes 1,000 miles long between Samoa and New Zealand. The expedition left Hawaii on the 18th of March 2005 and returned on the 5th of August having covered a distance of 10,000 miles between Hawaii and New Zealand. Scientists from the USA, New Zealand and Germany used the HURL submersibles, Pisces IV and Pisces V, as well as the remotely-operated vehicle RCV-150, aboard the R/V Ka?imikai-o-Kanaloa to dive into active volcanoes to water depths of 2,000 meters. Scientists from New Zealand, the USA and Germany conducted 41 dives on the previously unexplored (from manned submersibles) submarine volcanoes. Ten active volcanoes were explored during this time. Hundreds of specimens of new and unusual marine life, water chemistry, extremophile microorganisms, mineral formations and volcanic rocks were collected during this expedition with the two submersibles and the ROV. Bizarre natural events, such as the oozing of hot liquid sulfur from the ocean floor onto the skids of the submersible were observed. Carbon dioxide gas was observed profusely streaming into the seawater from the volcanoes, making these one of the greatest contributions to hot house gasses entering the atmosphere.

Jan 1, 2005

By Alexander Malahoff

Six active Kermadec Arc submarine volcanoes located between 34°S and 36°30?S were mapped and sampled by an interdisciplinary inter-institutional research team between April and July 2005 using submersibles Pisces V and Pisces IV aboard the mother ship the RV Kai?mikai-O-Kanaloa. The purpose of the expedition was to study the relationship between hydrothermal activity, formation of hydrothermal mineral deposits and the biodiversity of life associated with the hydrothermal vents. Of the volcanoes examined, all showed evidence of hydrothermal activity, plume production and helium anomalies. Only two of the volcanoes, namely Brothers and Clark, showed chimneys and surficial poly-metallic sulphide deposition. Hydrothermal venting at a water depth of 1700 meters within the base of the northern wall of the summit caldera of Brothers Volcano has produced a field of chimneys, some of them 5 metres high with black smokers venting. Temperatures of 300°C were measured within the active vents. Clark Volcano has a double cone summit at a water depth of 875 metres. The shallowest cone has a near-summit hydrothermal vent field with 5-meter high venting chimneys and smaller structures around the periphery. Water temperatures of 200°C. Geochemical and petrological analysis of the massive poly-metallic sulphide samples taken from Brothers and Clark show a diversity of mineralogy. This diversity is clearly a function of hydrothermal water temperature. Chimneys sampled from Brothers are pyrite and sphalerite dominant with lesser chalcopyrite. Sulphides from Clark Volcano tend to be barite rich with lesser sphalerite and pyrite. Sulphides from Brothers Volcano have a range in gold composition of 4 to 58 ppb with silver composition of up to 38 ppb. A mineral formation model for the volcanoes suggests hydrothermal fluid boiling within the volcanic edifice for those volcanoes with shallow summits and massive sulphide deposition with the edifice as well. Surficial deposits include native sulphur and lower temperature oxides. Only the deeper water Brothers Volcano shows massive sulphide deposition along the marginal faults of the caldera floor.

Jan 1, 2005

By Yuta Yamamoto

Seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) which contain Au, Ag, Cu, Zn, and Pb have been interested in as a target of commercial mining these 15 years. Japan has large potential of SMS and a national R&D project for the mining has been active these 5 years. However, the economy of SMS mining is very bad, because the waste tailing disposal cost is very expensive in Japan. A slurry flushing method is experimentally examined in this study for the improvement of the economy. During the flushing, because of density difference between the metal-rich ore and the waste rock, a kind of gravity separation is possible. The results suggest a possibility of the actual application.

Sep 14, 2011

By Tina Schneider

Scientists show that polymetallic nodules and massive sulfides from deep sea mining contain valuable metals. These metals have the potential to overcome future shortages of supply. Hence, companies, government agencies and industrial associations increasingly evaluate deep sea mining as a promising supplement of land mining. Technologies to extract, exploit, transport and smelt polymetallic nodules and massive sulfides industrially are still in conceptual stage and not sufficiently advanced for operation. According to the International Seabed Authority, large scale exploitation would require a successful pilot mining test in order to demonstrate e.g. the technological feasibility but also the conservation of environmental systems services. At the same time, NGO´s and a some scientists point out that large scale extraction of polymetallic nodules and massive sulfides could disturb the habitat of benthic organisms, with unknown long-term effects. Aside from the direct impacts of mining, indirect consequences about leakage are likely. In the oral presentation I will show how companies, government agencies, scientists and association/interest groups perceive and assess economical/technological, social and environmental risks and opportunities of deep sea mining. In order to analyze the perspectives of each stakeholder group on deep sea mining, we conducted 15 interviews with four stakeholder groups and a large scale survey (n = 500, return rate = 13 %) in Germany. We used the concept of sustainability with its economical/technological, ecological and social dimensions for the interpretation of the results. The empirical research shows the following core results:

Jan 1, 2018