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By T J. Beardsmore, N Wyche, D Flint, T J. Griffin

Western Australia (WA) is currently the world’s largest iron ore producer, and mining of its huge reserves and resources of iron ore has become a critical part of the state’s economy and regional development. Iron ore exports from WA have reached 760 Mt/a, corresponding to shipping more than one Mt per turn-of-the-tide from the state’s ports. The iron ore sector dominates all commodities produced in WA, and in 2016 accounted for 77 per cent of the state’s royalty receipts, 56 per cent of mineral and petroleum exports (by value) and 50 per cent of mining industry employment. Expenditure on exploration for iron ore (including that for resource estimation and conversion to ore reserves) has declined markedly, from its record peak of $1100 M in 2012 to $280 M in 2016, placing it second after gold. Foreign investment has been a key element underpinning development of the iron ore industry from the 1960s until today, and will likely continue to be so into the future.CITATION:Flint, D, Wyche, N, Beardsmore, T J and Griffin, T J, 2017. The importance of iron ore to Western Australia’s economy, in Proceedings Iron Ore 2017, pp 7–12 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 24, 2017

Australia as a leading producer of mineral sands has also occupied a leading position in many areas of research'in the processing and applications of these minerals. Research in upgrading ilmenite to produce synthetic rutile has resulted in the develop- ment of many processes, e.g,., Becher, Murso, Chlorine Technology, and ICI processes. Studies on the reducibility of ilmenites, aqueous leaching of reduced ilmenites, Fe-Ti-O system, leachability of natural and treated ilmenites in hydrochloric acid and selective chlorination of iron from ilmenites have been carried out in order to develop and improve the efficiency of the above processes. While research on the processing of zircon sand to produce high purity (99.99% ZrO2 zirconia powder and zirconium chemicals started only recently, research by CSIRO in the early 1970s led to the discovery of the phenomenon of transformation toughening in partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ) ceramics. Australia, with very significant resources of lanthanide-containing ores, pro- duces substantial quantities of monazite each year but research in processing and appli- cations of rare earths was neglected in recent years in this country. However, research to improve processes for the recovery of rare earths is now under way and studies on the production and testing of Nd-B-Fe magnets which are 1.5-2 times stronger than the strongest magnets (Sm-Co) currently available, have also commenced.' An overview of the research in the pro- cessing and applications of mineral sands during the last two decades in Australia and its implications for the industry are pre- sented in the paper.

Jan 1, 1986

By C Menzies

Hydraulic Monitor mining at Solid EnergyÆs Spring Creek Mine has proven to be a safe and effective method of extracting steeply dipping thick seams at production capabilities approaching one million tonnes per annum.   This paper traces the development of Hydraulic Monitor mining from its initial introduction into old workings at Strongman Mine, its refinement at Strongman 2 in shallow, thick and steep workings, through to its introduction into the deep, very thick seams at Spring Creek Mine. This last step of the progression came with all the added complications that come with depth, particularly flammable gas.   This paper will describe the various changes in mining conditions that dictated the performance of the monitor, how the mine layouts were changed to adapt, and the various operational systems that were put in place, to allow a safe and productive operation.

Jan 1, 2007

By Miller JD, Ye Y

The Air-Sparged Hydrocyclone (ASH) has been developed for the fast and efficient flotation of fine mineral particles in a centrifugal field during the past decade at the University of Utah. Over the years, the air-sparged hydrocyclone unit has shown promising potential for the flotation of copper porphyry ore, low-grade placer gold and auriferous pyrite ores, various industrial minerals, and fine coal cleaning. Many fundamental studies including the X-ray computed tomography (CT) analysis have been carried out in order to understand the multiphase fluid flow phenomena associated with ASH flotation. With data available from these studies, it is now possible to construct more accurate ASH flotation models for different applications in order to analyse the behaviour of the system and to optimise design and operating variables. The ASH flotation model developed in this paper is based on the data given in `Air-Sparged Hydrocyclone/Advanced Froth Flotation Fine Coal Cleaning', Final Report, DOE Contract No DE-AC-88PC88853, submitted by Pennsylvania Electric Company (PENELEC), December 1989. Data from several hundred experiments with the two-inch ASH-2C air-sparged hydrocyclone (capacity 0.1 - 0.3 tph dry coal) are available from the report and have been used for this analysis. In the past, a preliminary model based on limited data had been developed. The current study, however, emphasises the global behaviour of the ASH system by utilising almost all the data from the report for the purpose of scale-up and industrial application. There are two parts in the current modeling and analysis effort for ASH flotation of fine coal. The first part is the modeling/analysis of dimensionless ratio of overflow opening area to underflow opening area, A*, and the dimensionless ratio of air flowrate to slurry flowrate, Q . The second part involves the modelling/analysis of all other variables in the system and an expert system for operation and control is introduced.

Jan 1, 1993

By McAllister J

Oxygen was in restricted use at Port Kembla until tonnage oxygen became available for steelmaking in the open hearth furnaces. In adopting the new process various modifications to furnace design and operation were necessary and some of these, including increase in roof height and variation in firing and draft control, are discussed.The design of oxygen lances is also discussed and various steelmakingtechniques considered.Steel production increased with oxygen roof lancing-one- furnace producing 8,507 tons in one week-but new problems, such as rate of refractory wear, and disposal of fumes, were created.Design of future open hearth oxygen furnaces is predicted.INTRODUCTIONIn the post-war era, the availability of "tonnage" oxygen caused a major revolution in steelmaking techniques. Various pneumatic processes showed that steel can be madeat a very fast rate and that oxygen steelmaking can be applied to open hearth furnaces. Methods used are surface impingement with roof lances, bath injection with door lances, flame enrichment with fuel firing, mixed gas and oxygen firing, and enrichment of normal combustion air by oxygen injection into the flue systems.Owing to its previous restricted availability and high cost, oxygen was used in rather small quantities in the open hearth furnaces at Australian Iron and Steel Pty. Ltd.(A.I. & S.), Port Kembla, until about the middle of 1960.At that time tonnage oxygen became available and roof lancing commenced on No. 33 furnace at No. 2' open hearth shop.

Jan 1, 1962

For some time fine coal (-0.5 mm) flot ation has been considered as a bulk flotation problem. Combinations of hydrocarbon oils and frothers have been used as surface active agents in coal flotation. The selectivity of the flotation process has always been poor in such cases. With the increase in fine coal production due to mining methods and coal handling systems, optimisation of fine coal treatment.has become important. Petrographic and mineralogical composit- ions of coal particles have been reported to influence their flotability. The problem becomes more complex due to surface oxidation of coal and the presence of slime forming clay minerals in the run of mine coal. In this paper, the flotation problem is examined on the basis of various constituents of coal and their associated gangue minerals. The selection of reagents has been suggested on the basis of their surface chemical properties. Factors such as surface modific- ation of coal and gangue materials, flotation kinetics and hydrocarbon oil - coal inter- action have been critically evaluated to improve fine coal flotation recovery.

Jan 1, 1978

By J Rowland, B Belle, M Webber

The Australian underground coal industry has experienced substantial improvements in longwall productivity and, as such, the methods of providing a safe and productive mine environment have needed to evolve and develop. Whilst the primary method of controlling atmospheric conditions is by airflow it has become impracticable or impossible for the majority of Australian longwall mines to contend with all environmental hazards with primary ventilation alone.If the ventilation circuit cannot provide a safe and productive mine environment at an acceptable cost and circuit duty then supplementary controls are required. Examples include pre-gas drainage, post-gas drainage, gas utilisation, refrigeration and innovative dust control systems. Of the 21 longwall operations surveyed in Australia, there were 13 in New South Wales and eight in Queensland.This study represents a timely opportunity for the industry to examine the primary and supplementary ventilation systems implemented in Australian longwall mines and to discuss how to equip the industry to successfully face the future of underground longwall ventilation management in Australia.CITATION:Webber, M, Belle, B and Rowland, J, 2017. Australian longwall ventilation systems, in Proceedings Australian Mine Vent Conference 2017, pp 301–308 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 28, 2017

By Borsaru M, Wylie AW

A neutron irradiation technique has been developed which is suitable for the determinat- ion of the iron and aluminium content of iron ore fines (-6 mm particle size) on a moving rubber conveyor belt. The determination of iron entails measure- ment with a NaI(Tl) gamma ray detector of the characteristic prompt gamma rays (7.64 MeV) due to thermal neutron capture in iron, while the determination of aluminium is based on thermal neutron activation analysis. For the latter a second detector must be placed down- stream to monitor the 1.78 MeV gamma radiation emitted after activation of aluminium. Although conveyor speed has no effect on the Fe measurement, it has an adverse influence on the aluminium signal, and the belt speed should not exceed 0.1 m/s if good accuracy is required. Static trials on a 460 mm rubber conveyor belt with constant ore geometry indicate that for iron an accuracy of ¦ 1.2% Fe (2a) can be achieved for crushed run-of-mine ore at

Jan 1, 1978

By Sataev IS, Malinovskaja ND, Otrozdenova LA, Knodov NV, Maximov II, Kuznetzou OK

The technology of flotation recovery of silver from the residue of a zinc plant is described. The peculiarity of this technology is a preliminary pulp conditioning in sodium chloride solution in the presence of aluminum metal under high temperature. In this process the silver is converted to the metallic phase and then floated with the usual sulphydryl collectors. A variant using a combined technology is also described, in which before flotation is performed about 50 per cent of silver is leached. The total silver recovery with the combined technology comes up to 90 - 94 per cent.

Jan 1, 1993

The purpose of this work is to determine the equilibrium-state of the aqueous-solution which is produced by the leaching processes, including natural weathering of pyrite minerals. The latter can lead to acid-mine-drainage (AMD). The ferric iron species (Fe3+) resulting from bacteria-catalysed oxidation of ferrous iron (Fe2+), in the presence of water and air, is known to bring about steady-dissolution of minerals chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), sphalerite (ZnS), pyrite (FeS2), and so forth. Good-aeration, relatively high-porosity and sufficient bacterial activity tend to promote leaching in waste-rock-dumps. The composition of the aqueous-phase that accumulates in the pore-space (or in open-pits) is of practical interest as it would strongly influence the leaching of both sulfide and non-sulfide minerals. Since the reactions among the various ionic species occur relatively fast, the solution-phase may be regarded as approaching a state of virtual-equilibrium and it is possible to determine by computation the respective concentrations of the many dissolved species. For the Cu-Fe-H-O-S system, these species may include: H+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+, HSO4-, SO42-, OH-, CuSO4o, H2O, Fe(OH)+, Fe(OH)2+, Fe(OH)2+, Fe2(OH)24+, Fe(SO4)+, Fe(HSO4)+, Fe(HSO4)2+, and Fe(SO4)2-. The aqueous-system which may be constituted from appropriate mole-quantities of H2SO4, FeSO4, Fe2(SO4)3, and CuSO4 is in fact the result of various natural processes (reactions) and due respect must be accorded to the extents of these reactions. The present model computes the equilibrium molalities of the foregoing ionic and neutral aqueous species, using the iterative equilibrium constant method that ensures strict-adherence to charge-balance and elemental molar-balance constraints. The dissolving sulfide-minerals (FeS2, CuFeS2) consume Fe2(SO4)3, H2O, and O2 and yield FeSO4, H2SO4, and CuSO4 while the aqueous-phase tends to become progressively acidic (declining pH) reflecting the gradual increase in the extents of sulfide-dissolution reactions. The equilibrium-state of the solution-phase is computed for specific set of values for the extents of respective reactions. The temperature and pressure of the system are 25¦ C (298.15 K) and 101.325 kPa (1.0 atm), respectively. The mica-like minerals such as the biotite [H2K(Mg,Fe)3Al(SiO4)3] tend to consume much of the H2SO4(aq), with the extracted K+, Mg2+, Fe2+ and Al3+ ionic species accumulating in the solution. The precipitation of the jarosites (potassium, hydronium, or ammonium) contributes to the removal of ferric and ferrous species from the solution-phase. In the present work, the emphasis is on predicting the compositions of the aqueous- and condensed-phases with advancing time or increasing æextent of reactionÆ. The results of such calculations are compared to published data on raw AMD (acid-mine-drainage).

Jan 1, 2008

By B Putland, I Lovatt, D Schwann, A Cervillin

The Mount Carlton project in Queensland's North East sits on a high-sulphidation epithermal style deposit rich in gold, copper and silver. Mt Carlton is an open pit mining operation with ore processed using a primary crusher, single stage SAG mill and flotation to produce a concentrate for sale. Orway Mineral Consultants (OMC) was involved in the original design of the comminution circuit and the project was commissioned in late 2012, with first concentrate shipped in March 2013. When Evolution sought to optimise the project in 2015, OMC was invited to assist by undertaking a circuit review to identify opportunities for the optimisation. During 2016, the Mt Carlton site team implemented the optimisation strategies developed in conjunction with OMC. These included reconfiguring the SAG mill discharge arrangement, reducing the average ball diameter and allowing the mill to operate at higher speed and under more autogenous conditions. Cyclone operation was changed to constant pressure and the vortex finder size was decreased. The combined strategies improved energy efficiency and allowed higher SAG mill power utilisation. The additional power has been used to increase throughput by 2.4 per cent while achieving a 27µm reduction in product size (P80) to gain downstream recovery improvements. The reduction in grind size has been achieved with only 6.8 per cent increase in specific energy consumption because of a 6.5 per cent increase in grinding efficiency. The circuit product size is also notably more consistent due to the improvements made to the cyclones, providing benefit to the downstream flotation circuit. A significant decrease in ball consumption was also gained, saving hundreds of thousands of dollars a year in operating cost.This paper will discuss the circuit design, start up and will detail the changes made during the optimisation and why these were successful.CITATION:Putland, B, Lovatt, I, Cervillin, A and Schwann, D, 2018. Mount Carlton comminution circuit design, start-up and optimisation, in Proceedings 14th AusIMM Mill Operators' Conference 2018, pp 517–528 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 29, 2018

By A Gibbs

Culture and leadership go hand in hand, especially when it comes to investing in safety. But the reality is that most safety leaders haven’t been taught the fundamental soft skills needed to lead effectively. In fact, only one in four safety leaders demonstrate effective skills and behaviours. Furthermore, when compared to its peers in other high-risk industries, our research indicates mining has the most room for improvement when it comes to effective safety leadership. In this presentation safety culture, climate and leadership will be outlined. Additionally, research data collected from our clients, across a variety of industries, will be shared to inspire reflection on the value of safety leadership. Finally, strategies to empower leaders and increase safety leadership behaviours will be described.

May 5, 2022

By L Dawson, S Carr-Cornish, N Boughen, K Moffat, S Masterson

The risk and consequences of community rejection and loss of a social licence to operate is well articulated (Moffat et al 2018), however, the means for systematically managing this risk are less established. At the local scale, a mining operation is said to have a social licence to operate (SLO) when it achieves ongoing acceptance or approval from the local community and other stakeholders who can affect its profitability (Graafland, 2002). Without this social acceptance, it is very difficult for a business to operate effectively or profitably. It is well understood that social (or community) acceptance of a mine and its associated operations is a reflection of the quality of the relationship a company has with their host community (Thomson & Boutilier, 2011; Lacey & Lamont, 2014; Parsons et al., 2014; Moffat et al., 2015). Community relations are an integral part of successful mining operations and where these interactions are effective, they tend to foster mutual understanding, trust and support between a company and the host community (Kemp et al., 2006; Holley & Mitcham, 2016). Research further demonstrates that where such interactions are perceived to be procedurally fair, the increased trust created in these company-community interactions tends to lead to higher levels of acceptance of mining operations (Moffat & Zhang, 2014; Lacey et al., 2017).The challenge, however, is how to listen systematically to communities that mining and associated operations; communities that are often located across vast geographic areas and with diverse demographics. To date, traditional methods deployed to both guide and evaluate community engagement and social investment activities have been challenged to reflect the nature of the phenomenon they seek to observe, the voice of community. For example, detailed baseline surveys of community attitudes every three years by companies, as is the requirement within the policy frameworks of most large miners, provide rich insights but do not reflect the dynamic, temporal nature of the relationships that underpins their SLO. These processes typically are largely opaque to communities and distinct from the company’s engagement activities. The CSIRO Local Voices project was developed with Rio Tinto to go some way towards meeting this challenge of how to listen to the voice of community systematically. CITATION:Moffat, K, Dawson, L, Carr-Cornish, S, Boughen, N and Masterson, S, 2018. Listening to Local Voices – a systematic approach for understanding what a social licence to operate means for Rio Tinto in the Pilbara, in Proceedings Life-of-Mine 2018, pp 8–11 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 25, 2018

The development of present methods of pillar extraction has evolved from the very earliest of hand mining operations which were limited in scope by venti- lation and transport considerations. Conservation and safety considerations also have led to the current shortwall operations with conventional equipment and powered supports. The shortwall methods have had significant effects on safety, costs, con- servation, flexibility, and other aspects of pillar extraction. The present stage falls short of the ideal but is some guide to prediction in what direction may lie the ideal methods for the future.

Jan 1, 1974

Process variables in flotation circuits are outlined with a view to producing mathematical models of circuits. The nature of the kinetics of flotation are discussed and the effect of process variables on the kinetics considered. An approach for a possible model is briefly outlined.

Jan 1, 1971

Ilmenite (FeTiO3) is the primary global source of titaniumdioxide which is commonly used as a whitening agent in papermanufacture and a pigment in paint manufacture. In WesternAustralia ilmenite is processed by the Becher process (Becher,1963, Becher et al, 1965) where ilmenite particles are feddirectly into the furnace with coal and heated to form acomposite of elemental iron and TiO2. The mechanism of thecarbothermic reduction of ilmenite has been extensively studied(Grey, Jones and Reid, 1973; Jones, 1973; Grey and Reid, 1974;El-Tawil, Morse and Francis, 1993) and is reasonably wellaccepted.

Jan 1, 1997

The region we call the West Coast is acknowledged as one of the richest and most diverse mineral provinces in the world. It's the most rugged part of Tasmania and our island is one of the most rugged parts of Australia, so that speaks for itself. A hostile land of razorback mountains, deep ravines, dangerous rivers, almost impenetrable rainforests and a climate that can change from mild to freezing in a matter of hours.

Jan 1, 1993

Australia, with its fast-growing economy and high standard of a~ living, has a high and rapidly increasing per capita consumption of energyIn total terms, Australia's energy requirements are doubling every 15 years, and among mature Western economies Australia ranks behind only Italy-and Japan in the rate of increase of energy consumption.The use of energy is often accepted as a yardstick of development and on this basis Australia might well congratulate itself on its high energy consumption. However, it is less well recognised that the resources absorbed in the production of energy represent a real cost to the* community, and that just as we strive for industrial efficiency or farm productivity we should strive for economy in the use of energy fuels.Australians spend annually an estimated ú500 million.on all forms of energy, a sum which represents about seven per cent of the Gross National Product. In all, energy production and distribution absorb the employment of more than 100,000 persons. In addition, the annual capital investment by.the oil industry amounts to some E55 millions, by the coal industry about ú12 millions, and by electrical and gas authorities some E108 millions, in total representing more than ten per cent of annual investment in other than private motor cars and housing,

Jan 1, 1962

By Abishev D. N, Balakirev V. F, Davydov G. I

The problem of recovery of cobalt products from poorly oxidised nickel ores (Kempirsaisk deposit) and pyrite concentrates with a low content of cobalt (Sokolovsk-Sarbaisky deposit) has not been solved to the present time in Kazakstan. The balance reserves of nickel ore of the Kempirsaisky deposit make up more than 35 million tons with a nickel content of 1.13 per cent and cobalt content of 0.05 per cent; besides there are 110 millions tons of out-balance ores (Anon, 1995). In a tailing dump of Sokolovsk-Sarbaisk Mining and Productional Association more than 320 million tons of tailings of wet magnetic separation have accumulated, which contain 7.2 per cent of sulphur, 0.022 per cent of cobalt, 0.012 per cent of nickel, 0.094 per cent of copper, 0.079 per cent of zinc, 16.45 per cent of iron, and from which a high quality pyrite concentrate car) he separated through flotation, containing 48 - 50 per cent of sulphur, 44.15 per cent of iron, 0.141 per cent of cobalt, 0.07 per cent of nickel, and 0.10 per cent of copper. The well-known technological flow charts for cobalt and nickel recovery from the tailings of sulphide-magnetite ores dressing (to give pyrite concentrate) and from oxidised nickel ores, are not profitable at the existing prices for metals, but are not worthless and require significant capital investments for the realisation of their value. The flow chart `sulphate roasting - leaching - solution processing' is used widely for combined processing of cobalt-containing pyrite ores and concentrates.

Jan 1, 1996

Simple parameters, capable of easy observation on-site under operating conditions without interruption to production, are outlined for the operational assessment of underground conveyor systems. Recording techniques, methods of analysis and deduction of operational characteristics are discussed for batch inputs to several points of a multiple belt conveyor system with limited inter-belt storage capacity. Particular attention is given to input and output load- time distributions, utilisation of inter-belt storage capability and system shutdown behaviour. Actual data, observed for a transfer feeder located between two trunk conveyor belts in an underground coal mine, is used to illustrate the operational assessment of an underground system. Load sensitive feedback systems-are briefly considered.

Jan 1, 1982