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By I. I. Gardescu

Rumania produced during 1936 some 62,500,000 bbl. of oil. Of this production, 99 per cent comes from an area running east and west along the southern foothills of the Carpathian Mountains just north of Bucharest. This almost rectangular area measures 20 by 40 miles and is located in the districts of Dambovita and Prahova between the cities of Targovigte to the west and Mizil to the east. The remainder of the production is about evenly divided between the oil fields north and east of Mizil in the Buzh district and those to the north on the eastern flanks of the Carpathian Mountains in the district of Baciiu. The Transylvanian Basin to the north and west of the Carpathian Mountains has produced to date only dry gas from its numerous salt domes. Bucsani Field The Bucgani oil field produced 15,600,000 bbl., or 25 per cent of the total production of Rumania in 1936. Bucgani is a deep-seated salt dome 7 miles south of the old Moreni oil field. A slight surface doming, not dissimilar to the topography observed on some of the oil fields of the Californian basin, called attention to the area. It is the southernmost oil field and, together with the deep-seated and prolific Boldesti field, points to the great oil possibilities of the deep-seated domes along the northern edge of the Rumanian plains south of the Carpathian foothills. The Government is the principal owner of the oil and gas subsurface rights in the areas south of the foothills. The acquisition of leases by the operating oil companies may be made either by application for an exploration permit, the company being assigned part of the acreage in case of successful wildcatting, or, if the area has already been declared as proven territory, through competitive bidding. A block of 164 acres was auctioned recently for $200,000, or $1200 per acre. The largest producer in the Bucgani oil field is the Steaua Romana, which produced 39.5 per cent of the total for the field. The Steaua Romana is a post-war company and 50 per cent of its shares are owned by the British Steaua and the Steaua Franpaise and the other 50 per cent by a group of Rumanian banks and by the Government. The Colombia,

Jan 1, 1937

By G. F. LOUCHLIN

A FEATURE of the International Geological Congress to be held at Pretoria, South Africa, in the summer of 1929,. will be a symposium on the gold resources of the world. In this connection the U. S. Geological Survey and Bureau of Mines have been asked to prepare a report, showing production in the United States, describing the geology of its principal gold- producing districts, and estimating reserves (a) assuming a continuation of presen6economic conditions, and (b) assuming lower costs. This report will not be completed before April 1, but data thus far assembled are here presented with the hope of profiting by discussion and by information from those well informed on any of the important gold-producing districts. Gold production in the United States rose to a maximum exceeding $100,000,000 in 1915 and then rapidly declined to about $52,000,000 in 1920. Since then it has fluctuated, but on the whole slightly declined. Reviews of the eight leading states afford the following tentative conclusions :

Jan 1, 1929

By L. C. McCabe

This paper is a progress report on a study of the distribution of the banded ingredients (Figs. 1 and 2) in Illinois screenings and the method of determining their distribution. Proximate analyses and screen tests1 have been reported and a further report on the washability characteristics of the screenings is in preparation. The microscopic study of the screenings is not yet far enough advanced to permit a conclusive report on the effect of mining, screening and washing on the distribution of the banded ingredients in the coals of Illinois. However, considerable fundamental data have been collected as a background for the screenings investigation and for a proposed study of fuels composed of known quantities of vitrain, clarain and fusain, the three common banded ingredients of Illinois coals. These fundamental data and the preliminary information now available from the microscopic study of screenings are broadly indicative of the reaction of the coals to the physical processes affecting them in mining and preparation. Proximate analyses of samples of vitrain, clarain, and fusain from several Illinois mines have been published2, but those given in Table 1 serve to show the differences that are apparent in proximate analyses. The vitrain samples are consistently low in ash, and the unit-coal value is uniformly lower than in clarain. The average fuel ratio (F.C./V.M.) of the vitrain samples in the table is 1.57 whereas the clarain average is 1.42. The fusain analyses vary considerably in ash and moisture. In the two samples from this mine the moisture values range from 8.99 to 22.80 and the ash from 4.86 to 16.91 per cent. Fusain has higher fixed carbon than either vitrain or clarain but the percentage is erratic from sample to sample. The relative proportions of the banded ingredients in the Herrin (No. 6) coal in Illinois is reasonably well known but detailed information

Jan 1, 1936

By L. C. McCabe

This paper is a progress report on a study of the distribution of the banded ingredients (Figs. 1 and 2) in Illinois screenings and the method of determining their distribution. Proximate analyses and screen tests1 have been reported and a further report on the washability characteristics of the screenings is in preparation. The microscopic study of the screenings is not yet far enough advanced to permit a conclusive report on the effect of mining, screening and washing on the distribution of the banded ingredients in the coals of Illinois. However, considerable fundamental data have been collected as a background for the screenings investigation and for a proposed study of fuels composed of known quantities of vitrain, clarain and fusain, the three common banded ingredients of Illinois coals. These fundamental data and the preliminary information now available from the microscopic study of screenings are broadly indicative of the reaction of the coals to the physical processes affecting them in mining and preparation. Proximate analyses of samples of vitrain, clarain, and fusain from several Illinois mines have been published2, but those given in Table 1 serve to show the differences that are apparent in proximate analyses. The vitrain samples are consistently low in ash, and the unit-coal value is uniformly lower than in clarain. The average fuel ratio (F.C./V.M.) of the vitrain samples in the table is 1.57 whereas the clarain average is 1.42. The fusain analyses vary considerably in ash and moisture. In the two samples from this mine the moisture values range from 8.99 to 22.80 and the ash from 4.86 to 16.91 per cent. Fusain has higher fixed carbon than either vitrain or clarain but the percentage is erratic from sample to sample. The relative proportions of the banded ingredients in the Herrin (No. 6) coal in Illinois is reasonably well known but detailed information

Jan 1, 1936

By A. S. Eve

In the spring of 1930, the question was raised as to the possibility of estimating the depth to which the pyrrhotite-nickel deposit at the Falconbridge mine extended in the earth. This body is 7500 ft. long, it dips at 80° to the north, and it is fairly straight with slight sinuosities. Dr. F. W. Lee suggested that it might be possible to solve the problem by measuring the vertical magnetic intensity, with a good magnetometer, both near the surface of the earth and also at a level a few feet higher in the air. The writer regarded this suggestion with some scepticism, but it was decided to put the scheme to a practical test. In July, 1930, Dr. Lee, Dr. Keys and the writer, with Mr. Joyce and Mr. Belloc as assistants, made a firm, light wooden platform (Fig. 1) measuring 4 by 4 ft. on the top, which was 10 ft. above ground. This platform could be moved easily a few yards by four men, and carried across country in a wagon or by motor truck. Some iron nails were used in its construction, but we were not able to detect their influence on the Askania magnetometer. Nevertheless, in future work, the use of iron should be completely avoided. Readings were taken along a traverse at right angles to the orebody, at several stations, both on the ground and on the platform. The excess readings, over the dike, as compared with those about 800 ft. away, are shown in Table 1. The largest reading, 6.8, is open to suspicion and should be rejected. The depth of the top of the orebody is known by electrical survey, and by actual drilling, to be about 112 to 123 ft., and the covering is sandy glacial drift. Similar readings were taken over a long straight magnetic diabase dike. These also are shown in Table 1. The magnetic vertical intensity is consistently less at the higher level, which is 10 ft. above the lower level.

Jan 1, 1932

By O. J. Malacarne, D. G. Millenbruch

The use of a series of thickeners for washing of the slime fraction of a leached ore is not uncommon in the uranium industry; however, few ore processing mills have used a thickener circuit for washing leached total ore. The common practice is to wash the sand fraction in classifiers and the slime fraction only in thickeners. At the Uravan mill of Union Carbide Nuclear Co., a total ore acid leach is employed to extract uranium values from sandstone ores. These leached ores are then washed at a nominal rate of from 1000 to 1300 tpd in a series of washing thickeners. A typical screen analysis of the ore being washed in these thickeners is: 25 pct, -200 mesh; 3 pct, +35 mesh; and about 1 pct, +14 mesh. The amount of slimes (-200 mesh) will vary from 20 to 30 pct as the mill receives ore from 150 different mines. The washing liquor is acidic, from a pH of about 2 in the first thickener to 0.6 pH in the last thickener and, of course, all acid duty equipment must be used. The Uravan mill of Union Carbide Nuclear Co. is located in Montrose County, Colo. and is physically located on a canyon wall along the San Miguel River. The thickeners referred to in this paper are located on top of the mesa above the canyon. For purposes of identification, these thickeners are numbered 1 through 8 from south to north. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF CIRCUIT The circuit utilized consists of eight wooden fir tanks, 60-ft diam by 12-ft deep, set in a line and staggered in elevation by approximately 3 ft. The washing water flows through the thickeners by gravity, while the ore pulp is pumped uphill from thickener to thickener. Adequate piping and pumping capacity are available so that any of the thickeners can be bypassed in the circuit. All the controls for the

Jan 1, 1962

By Jay R. Burns

Two magnesium sand-casting alloys are commonly favored in the United States. These are referred to as H and C alloys (Dow Chemical Co.) or AM265 and AM260 alloys (American Magnesium Corporation). Both are of an aluminum-zinc-manganese type. H alloy contains 6 per cent aluminum and 3 per cent zinc and is characterized by relatively good toughness. C alloy contains g per cent aluminum and 2 per cent zinc and is employed where high yield strength and pressure tightness are required. Examination of magnesium castings poured in Europe and England,1,2 however, demonstrates that H and C alloys are replaced by A8 and AZ91, respectively. That is, A8 represents a magnesium alloy having superior toughness while AZ91 is suitable for high yield strength and pressure-tight applications. The basic difference between the American and European alloys is that the foreign alloys employ a somewhat higher aluminum content and less zinc than is found in H and C alloys. The mechanical properties of the alloys, when divided into high and low-aluminum groups, are quite similar, as determined from separately cast foundry-control type test bars.3 In this paper the decrease of mechanical properties caused by any given amount of microporosity is measured for H, C, A8, and AZ91 alloys. The relative susceptibility of each of the four alloys to microporosity is also determined. Typical mechanical properties and nominal chemical analyses are reported in Table I. [ ] The apparent similarities between the two alloys in each group have led to considerable discussion as to the relative merits of each of the compositions.2 Popular points for comparison between the alloys have been the relative susceptibility of each of the four alloys to microporosity5 and the effect of this microporosity on their mechanical properties. It is primarily intended, in this paper, to show the

Jan 1, 1946

By C. R. Taylor, John Chipman

THE study of chemical reactions of liquid steel and basic open-hearth slag involves a complex slag system of at least eight important components, and often a number of others. In initiating an experimental program on the equilibrium relationship of slag and metal, it became evident that but little progress could be expected in the interpretation of the complex slags until an understanding had been gained of the simpler liquid systems composed of a limited number of slag constituents. The simplest system that in any way resembles open-hearth slag must contain lime, silica and iron oxide. Attempts to produce in an induction furnace slags containing only these constituents have met with serious limitations because of the solubility of refractories in the slag. Thus in acid-lined furnaces the slag is always saturated with silica and consequently contains between 48 and 63 per cent of this component. In basic-lined furnaces an undesired additional component, magnesia, is introduced to the extent of some 3 to 15 per cent, depending upon the acidity, sometimes with disastrous results to the furnace. Thus in a magnesia-lined furnace, Fetters and Chipman1 found it impossible to prepare slags in which the ratio (CaO + MgO)/SiO2 was less than that corresponding to the metasilicate (approximately 0.8: I). Between this composition and that of the true acid slags lies a field of composition about which very little is known and which cannot be explored by any ordinary means. This circumstance, as well as the desire to study the more basic slags in the absence of magnesia, calls for the development of a method by which slags may be brought into equilibrium with molten metal without coming in contact with refractory. Such a technic has been provided by the rotating induction furnace developed by Barrett, Holbrook and Wood.2 Three modifications of the rotating furnace were described by these authors. The first was essentially a rotating refractory cylinder containing the magnesia crucible, which was itself heated by a graphite crucible. In the second, only the magnesia crucible rotated, the cylindrical graphite heater being stationary. In the third, the coil and crucible revolved, and the metal was heated directly by induction. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD Furnace The furnace used in this investigation differed from previous designs and may be considered a fourth modification of the original rotating furnace. Its essential features are shown in Fig. I. The outer case A is a fire-clay flue liner for control of the atmosphere. The top B and base C are alberene stone. The coil supports D are of "Formica," a material formed from phe-

Jan 1, 1942

By R. K. McGeary, B. Lustman

The textures produced in zirconium by cold and hot rolling, and by recrystallization above and below the transformation temperature were determined. Thermal expansivities were measured in the thickness, transverse, and rolling directions of preferentially oriented zirconium and were correlated with the texture scatter in these directions. REVIOUS investigations have indicated that minor differences between hexagonal close-packed metals of similar axial ratio may appear with respect to the textures produced both on cold rolling and on subsequent recrystallization. In the case of magnesium, beryllium, and titanium, metals of axial ratio similar to that of zirconium, the ideal orientations produced by rolling are fundamentally the same, although marked variance is reported in the degree and type of scatter about the mean orientation; in those instances where recrystallization textures were observed, they were reported to be similar to the rolling textures. Measurement of the anisot-ropy of thermal expansion of both rolled and re-crystallized zirconium could not be correlated satisfactorily with the textures reported for the above metals, and therefore a study was made of the preferred orientations produced in zirconium. Reported below are the textures produced in zirconium by cold and hot rolling, and recrystallization above and below the transformation temperature, together with the results of thermal expansion measurements. Determination of Preferred Orientation Two types of zirconium were investigated: 1— "crystal bar" zirconium obtained from the Foote Mineral Co., produced by the thermal decomposition of zirconium tetraiodide, and 2—zirconium ingot obtained from the Bureau of Mines prepared by melting sponge zirconium in a graphite resistor vacuum furnace in a graphite crucible. The major impurities present in the two materials used are listed in Table I. Several of the pole figures were later checked with 0.03 pct hafnium crystal bar material and the results were identical with those to be shown for the 1.5 pct hafnium material. The materials were cold rolled to 0.014 in. in thickness as shown in Table 11. Specimens were cut from the 0.014 in. thick rolled sheets and etched to thicknesses of 0.002 to 0.010 in. Such specimens were used for exposures up to a 50' to 60" angle between the beam and plane of the specimen; for higher angles a wire shape, similar to that described by Bakarian,' was formed on an end of the original 0.014 in. sheet. A fine-bladed abrasive cut-off wheel was used to slot the sheet and to form the cylindrical cross-section. The wire shaped ends were then etched to 0.006 to 0.010 in. in diam. Although absorption of X-rays in the wire-shaped specimens does not vary with angle of rotation, the line width around the diffraction rings was not uniform, because the wire was narrower than the X-ray beam, and this condition caused some uncertainty in the estimation of azimuthal intensities. Furthermore, scanning was not practicable with this type of specimen so that spottiness of the rings due to large grain size was excessive for specimens which had been heated above about 650°C. Nevertheless, satisfactory information could be obtained for high angle exposures from the negatives by the use of both types of specimens. Transmission Laue photograms were taken using unfiltered molybdenum radiation (47.5 kv, 18 ma) and a 0.025 in. pinhole. With the film 8 cm from a 0.005 in. thick specimen exposures of about 30 min were adequate. For specimens with a coarse grain size, a device that scanned about 0.15 sq in. of sheet surface was used. An attempt was made to plot the pole figures by use of an X-ray spectrometer as described by Norton.' However, for the particular technique used, the intensity variations obtained were not considered definite enough to give reliable results, especially for the large grained recrystallized and transformed specimens. This method was therefore abandoned in favor of the standard photographic method. Nine exposures were taken of each specimen: seven exposures with the beam perpendicular to the rolling direction and at 0°, 10°, 20°, 35", 50°, 65", and 80" to the transverse direction, and two exposures with the beam perpendicular to the transverse direction and at 60" and 80" to the rolling direction. Additional exposures were then made where necessary. The intensity variations of the diffraction rings were estimated by eye. It was usually possible to estimate 3 degrees of intensity from the photograms but in some cases 2, 4, or 5 degrees were estimated. Experimental Results The preferred orientation was determined for the following treatments: 1—cold-rolled, 2—low temperature rolled, 3—cold-rolled surface layer, 4— cross-rolled, 5—hot-rolled, 6—recrystallized below the transformation temperature, and 7-—recrystallized above the transformation temperature. I—Cold-Rolled Textures: The slip plane in hexag-

Jan 1, 1952

By J. W. Pamplin

Some 40 miles east of Tampa is the center of the Florida pebble phosphate deposits. These are of Pliocene age and consist of several members of the Bone Valley formation.1 Physically the phosphate-bearing formation, locally called the "matrix," varies in thickness from nothing to about 25 ft., usually averages 10 ft., and consists mainly of clay, quartz and phosphate pebble, the latter particles varying in size from colloidal to one inch diameter. The pebbles range in color from dark gray, through white, to cream, and in hardness from that which must be broken with a hammer to that which can be scratched with the fingernail. They assay from 66 to 80 per cent bone phosphate of lime (called "B.P.L." in the trade) or tricalcium phosphate (Ca³P2O8) and are secondary apatites. They form from 15 to 50 per cent by weight of the matrix. Over the matrix lies a varying thickness (5 to 40 ft.) of overburden composed of quartz and clay. Briefly, mining consists of two operations2 in open pits about 200 ft. wide by 1/2 mile or more in length. In the first step overburden is removed by large electric draglines at the rate of about 700 cu. yd. per hour. This is followed closely by hydraulic mining of the matrix at the rate of about 300 cu. yd. per hour. This matrix yardage is moved from an improvised sump in the floor of the pit to an ore-dressing plant, sometimes a mile distant, by one, two or three "pit-cars" (pumping units) working on a 12-in. pipe line called the "rock line" to distinguish it from the high-pressure water line feeding the hydraulic giants, which is known as the "hydraulic line." This 700 yd. of overburden and 300 yd. of matrix—1000 yd. in all-amounts to about 1500 tons of material moved each hour. The overburden is dumped into the mined-out pit alongside the pit being mined. The matrix moves to the ore-dressing plant at the rate of about 7% long tons in 4000 gal. of water per minute—a ratio of approximately one to two by weight, or one to six by volume. This constitutes the "mill heads," but in the pebble district it is called the "matrix."

Jan 1, 1938

By J. W. Pamplin

Some 40 miles east of Tampa is the center of the Florida pebble phosphate deposits. These are of Pliocene age and consist of several members of the Bone Valley formation.1 Physically the phosphate-bearing formation, locally called the "matrix," varies in thickness from nothing to about 25 ft., usually averages 10 ft., and consists mainly of clay, quartz and phosphate pebble, the latter particles varying in size from colloidal to one inch diameter. The pebbles range in color from dark gray, through white, to cream, and in hardness from that which must be broken with a hammer to that which can be scratched with the fingernail. They assay from 66 to 80 per cent bone phosphate of lime (called "B.P.L." in the trade) or tricalcium phosphate (Ca³P2O8) and are secondary apatites. They form from 15 to 50 per cent by weight of the matrix. Over the matrix lies a varying thickness (5 to 40 ft.) of overburden composed of quartz and clay. Briefly, mining consists of two operations2 in open pits about 200 ft. wide by 1/2 mile or more in length. In the first step overburden is removed by large electric draglines at the rate of about 700 cu. yd. per hour. This is followed closely by hydraulic mining of the matrix at the rate of about 300 cu. yd. per hour. This matrix yardage is moved from an improvised sump in the floor of the pit to an ore-dressing plant, sometimes a mile distant, by one, two or three "pit-cars" (pumping units) working on a 12-in. pipe line called the "rock line" to distinguish it from the high-pressure water line feeding the hydraulic giants, which is known as the "hydraulic line." This 700 yd. of overburden and 300 yd. of matrix—1000 yd. in all-amounts to about 1500 tons of material moved each hour. The overburden is dumped into the mined-out pit alongside the pit being mined. The matrix moves to the ore-dressing plant at the rate of about 7% long tons in 4000 gal. of water per minute—a ratio of approximately one to two by weight, or one to six by volume. This constitutes the "mill heads," but in the pebble district it is called the "matrix."

Jan 1, 1938

By J. W. Pamplin

SOME 40 miles east of Tampa is the center of the Florida pebble phosphate deposits. These are of Pliocene age and consist of several members of the Bone Valley formation.1 Physically the phosphate-bearing formation, locally called the "matrix," varies in thickness from nothing to about 25 ft., usually averages 10 ft., and consists mainly of clay, quartz and phosphate pebble, the latter particles varying in size from colloidal to one inch diameter. The pebbles range in color from dark gray, through white, to cream, and in hardness from that which must be broken with a hammer to that which can be scratched with the fingernail. They assay from 66 to 80 per cent bone phosphate of lime (called "B.P.L." in the trade) or tricalcium phosphate (Ca3P20s) and are secondary apatites. They form from 15 to 50 per cent by weight of the matrix, Over the matrix lies a varying thickness (5 to 40 ft.) of overburden composed of quartz and clay. Briefly, mining consists of two operations2 in open pits about 200 ft. wide by ½ mile or more in length. In the first step overburden is removed by large electric draglines at the rate of about 700 cu. yd. per hour. This is followed closely by hydraulic mining of the matrix at the rate of about 300 cu. yd. per hour. This matrix yardage is moved from an improvised sump in the floor of the pit to an ore-dressing plant, some-times a mile distant, by one, two or three "pit-cars" (pumping units) working on a 12-in. pipe line called the "rock line" to distinguish it from the high-pressure water line feeding the hydraulic giants, which is known as the "hydraulic line." This 700 yd. of overburden and 300 yd. of matrix-1000 yd. in all-amounts to about 1500 tons of material moved each hour. The over-burden is dumped into the mined-out pit alongside the pit being mined. The matrix moves to the ore-dressing plant at the rate of about 7 ½ long tons in 4000 gal. of water per minute-a ratio of approximately one to two by weight, or one to six by volume. This constitutes the "mill heads," but in the pebble district it is called the "matrix."

Jan 1, 1938

DAVID COLE, El Paso, Tex. (communication to the Secretary*).-I notice that Mr. Callow takes issue with me on certain points I have previously contributed to the Transactions, to which I would reply," follows: Regarding Inspiration: Mr. Callow's refinements of gravity methods made just prior to the advent of flotation in the Southwest were intended to be "down to the minute," and the gravity flow sheet for Inspiration ores which he brought out at that time as the result of his long campaign of experimentation was regarded by many as the last word in wet gravity work. It was not my intention to discredit this good work when I said "he threw small light on slime treatment." "Minus 200 mesh," however, is not-synonymous with "real slime." Repeated treatments by gravity methods will result in the separation of a very large percentage of the fine granular sulphides in sizes much finer than 200 mesh, and I gave him due credit for that. The unavoidable losses were made in the "real" slime which I mentioned in the paragraph which Mr. Callow refers to as my "statements on page 1871," and his refinements were not a solution to the real slime problem. Mr. Callow has called attention to the fact that his best results at. Inspiration in gravity work were obtained on Joe Bush ore and he presents a table, viz., Tests Nos. 68, 71, and 72; and asks us to consider and compare these results, made by his refined gravity methods, with the results obtained by 'flotation methods in the new mill "during the second half of 1915 and in August, 1916." Of course, the ore treated in the mill was what happened to come. It was not Joe Bush ore, and therefore comparisons of detail figures are of no value. In regard to Mr. Callow's statements under the caption "Callow Cells Adopted by Arizona Copper Company," I would say that those who have been sufficiently interested to read my paper and' his remarks will notice what amounts to contradictory statements on several points which I cannot allow to go unchallenged. I was on the ground constantly and got my information at first hand. The tables published were the official ones. Mr. Callow was not present during the period and has been laboring under that disadvantage.

Jan 5, 1917

By Kenneth Cottingham

The area described herein is situated on what is known as the Arches Fork anticline in Roane and Calhoun Counties, W. Va. When the area was first mapped, it was felt that well records would give a more intimate idea of conditions, both structural and lithologic, than could be expected from surface horizons. The surface formations are chiefly members of the Monongahela series, though northward the hilltop outcrops are those of the Dunkard. Neither series offen a key horizon sufficiently definite to be satisfactory, although the structure as determined from well records was later checked against two of the more persistent surface sandstones. In mapping the subsurface structure, the top of the Big Lime (Green-brier) was employed as the key horizon. The average depth to the top of the Big Lime varies from 1600 to 2000 ft. (487 to 609 m.), while the average thickness as indicated by well records is 113 ft. (34 m.). The oil-producing formation is the Big Injun, lying just below the Big Lime. In two instances, well records show the Lime and Injun separated by a few feet of "break." The Big Injun is recorded as having a variable thickness. Seven logs report it as missing and one gives it the maximum thickness of 105 ft. (32 m.), while the entire average for thickness is 19 ft. (6 m.). Relation of Structure to Thickness of Big Injun The seven wells reporting the Big Injun as absent were located near the anticlinal axis. Moreover, the general tendency is a thickening of the Injun on the flanks of the anticline, increasing with distance from the axis. Manifestly, this apparent anomaly has no stratigraphic basis, as the actual thickness of the Big Injun and the overlying Big Lime was determined by original deposition which no amount of subsequent folding could appreciably alter. Fig. 1 is a skeleton map of structure based on the top of the Big Lime; Fig. 2 is a cross-section showing the thickness of the Big Injun.

Jan 1, 1923

By Kenneth Cottingham

The area described herein is situated on what is known as the Arches Fork anticline in Roane and Calhoun Counties, W. Va. When the area was first mapped, it was felt that well records would give a more intimate idea of conditions, both structural and lithologic, than could be expected from surface horizons. The surface formations are chiefly members of the Monongahela series, though northward the hilltop outcrops are those of the Dunkard. Neither series offen a key horizon sufficiently definite to be satisfactory, although the structure as determined from well records was later checked against two of the more persistent surface sandstones. In mapping the subsurface structure, the top of the Big Lime (Green-brier) was employed as the key horizon. The average depth to the top of the Big Lime varies from 1600 to 2000 ft. (487 to 609 m.), while the average thickness as indicated by well records is 113 ft. (34 m.). The oil-producing formation is the Big Injun, lying just below the Big Lime. In two instances, well records show the Lime and Injun separated by a few feet of "break." The Big Injun is recorded as having a variable thickness. Seven logs report it as missing and one gives it the maximum thickness of 105 ft. (32 m.), while the entire average for thickness is 19 ft. (6 m.). Relation of Structure to Thickness of Big Injun The seven wells reporting the Big Injun as absent were located near the anticlinal axis. Moreover, the general tendency is a thickening of the Injun on the flanks of the anticline, increasing with distance from the axis. Manifestly, this apparent anomaly has no stratigraphic basis, as the actual thickness of the Big Injun and the overlying Big Lime was determined by original deposition which no amount of subsequent folding could appreciably alter. Fig. 1 is a skeleton map of structure based on the top of the Big Lime; Fig. 2 is a cross-section showing the thickness of the Big Injun.

Jan 1, 1923

Discussion of the paper of George C. Stone, presented at the New York Meeting, October, 1913, and printed in Bulletin No. 82, October, 1913, pp. 2401 to 2402. D. S. JACOBUS,* New York, N. Y.:-The engineers of the country are waking up to the possibilities of waste-heat boilers. As the cost of fuel increases, and as more attention is given to economies, it is evident that a great deal may lie gained by utilizing heat that has ordinarily been wasted. The art in the manufacture of' waste-heat boilers has. advanced so that it will now pay to install them under certain conditions where it would not have paid to install boilers constructed in accordance with older methods. In using boilers where the gases are at a comparatively low temperature, a great deal depends on the method of baffling the boiler in securing good results. The Babcock & Wilcox Co. has made a careful investigation of the laws of heat transfer and has applied the same to waste-heat boilers, which have been carefully tested under operating conditions, with the result that we now know what to expect with different arrangements of baffles and heating surfaces. The old idea of installing waste-heat boilers was to provide an arrangement where the draft loss would be a minimum, and little or no attention was paid to the effect of different systems of baffling on the steaming capacity of the boiler. In some instances, to secure a minimum draft loss no baffles were placed in the boilers. After making a most careful study of the subject it developed that this practice was bad, and that to obtain the best commercial economy, in place of endeavoring to obtain a minimum draft loss, an arrangement should be used that would lead to the maximum amount of heat transmission with a comparatively high draft loss. In nearly every case the amount of resistance of the gases fussing through the boiler involves the use of an induced-draft ,fan, but the additional capacity developed by the boiler over that which could be secured with the older designs, through arranging the heating surface properly and using proper baffles, much more than pays for the increase in the steam required to drive the fan.

Jan 12, 1913

R. H. Sweetser, Sault Ste. Marie, Ont. (communication to the Secretary*):—The recent work of furnace No. 1 of The Algoma Steel .Co., at Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, using for fuel, first all charcoal, then a mixture of charcoal and coke, and finally all coke, upsets the estimates given by Mr. Hall in the last two paragraphs of his interesting paper. Furnace No. 1 was built for a charcoal-furnace, and it was run on charcoal fuel from March 6 until July 9, 1905; then, for a week, a mixture of charcoal and coke was used, and, since then, coke alone has been the only fuel. It is to be regretted that at no time, during the run on charcoal, was there enough charcoal on hand and " in sight" to warrant blowing the furnace as hard as it should have been blown. During April and May the supply of charcoal limited the amount of blast to about 8,000 cu. ft. of air per min.; in June, to about 8,900 cubic feet. For a few days in July about 10,000 cu. ft. were blown, and then the maximum daily output, 173 tons (2,240 lb.), was reached. At all times the quality of the charcoal was poor, having been made from wood cut from three to four years before. Doubtless this furnace could have produced 200 tons of iron per day, even with this quality of charcoal, provided the supply had been sufficient; and with

Jan 1, 1906

By Ralph H. Sweetser

At the joint session of Blast Furnace and Open Hearth Committees, April 7, 1937, at Birmingham, the subject of the quality of basic open-hearth pig iron was so well presented and discussed from so many different viewpoints that it was the general opinion that progress had been made and that such meetings were conducive to the advancement of the art of making pig iron of the right quality for the open-hearth man to produce the most satisfactory quality of steel. It was agreed that there is a decided differentiation between the chemical analysis of pig iron and the "quality" of pig iron. Paul J. McKim said that open-hearth furnace operators frequently make reference to certain types of iron as "bad iron," "dirty iron," "cold metal," etc., claiming that when using these irons, although they are within specified chemical analysis, it is impossible to produce quality steel. Mr. McKim gave a list of the suggested causes of those "certain types" of bad irons that have a thoroughly respectable analysis but a thoroughly disreputable character. Another open-hearth man, P. A. MacIsaac, of Nova Scotia, said that: The effects of iron that is below standard in analysis or in that mysterious property called quality, are well known to all open-hearth operators. It has been shown that iron of this type results in the production of steels on which the rcjections of finished product run high. What is to be done about it? I would say that the burden of producing high-quality iron should be placed squarely on the shoulders of the blastfurnace man, even as that of making good steel is shouldered by the open-hearth man. It is the purpose of this paper to bring out into the open this "mysterious property called quality"; that is, in those "certain types" of basic pig iron that make it impossible to produce quality steels; and at the same time to point the way for the blast-furnace man to be able to shoulder the burden that Mr. MacIsaac and all other open-hearth men and foundry-men have placed upon him. Silicon, sulphur, phosphorus and manganese are not the guilty elements because these are known, specified and usually kept within the

Jan 1, 1938

By Ralph H. Sweetser

At the joint session of Blast Furnace and Open Hearth Committees, April 7, 1937, at Birmingham, the subject of the quality of basic open-hearth pig iron was so well presented and discussed from so many different viewpoints that it was the general opinion that progress had been made and that such meetings were conducive to the advancement of the art of making pig iron of the right quality for the open-hearth man to produce the most satisfactory quality of steel. It was agreed that there is a decided differentiation between the chemical analysis of pig iron and the "quality" of pig iron. Paul J. McKim said that open-hearth furnace operators frequently make reference to certain types of iron as "bad iron," "dirty iron," "cold metal," etc., claiming that when using these irons, although they are within specified chemical analysis, it is impossible to produce quality steel. Mr. McKim gave a list of the suggested causes of those "certain types" of bad irons that have a thoroughly respectable analysis but a thoroughly disreputable character. Another open-hearth man, P. A. MacIsaac, of Nova Scotia, said that: The effects of iron that is below standard in analysis or in that mysterious property called quality, are well known to all open-hearth operators. It has been shown that iron of this type results in the production of steels on which the rcjections of finished product run high. What is to be done about it? I would say that the burden of producing high-quality iron should be placed squarely on the shoulders of the blastfurnace man, even as that of making good steel is shouldered by the open-hearth man. It is the purpose of this paper to bring out into the open this "mysterious property called quality"; that is, in those "certain types" of basic pig iron that make it impossible to produce quality steels; and at the same time to point the way for the blast-furnace man to be able to shoulder the burden that Mr. MacIsaac and all other open-hearth men and foundry-men have placed upon him. Silicon, sulphur, phosphorus and manganese are not the guilty elements because these are known, specified and usually kept within the

Jan 1, 1938

By R. G. Aspden

Crystals with an (001) [loo] initial orientation of an iron-base alloy containing 3 pct Si were cold rolled with and without the use of constraints. A major difference in the rolling and annealing textures was observed between crystals rolled with and without constraints. These data show that the contribution of constraints at grain boundaries in a poly crystalline sheet should be considered in applying textural data on single crystals to grains in an aggregate. SILICON-iron alloys with a cube texture have been recently developed and their magnetic characteristics reported.1-4 Of interest in the development of this texture were the textural changes of single crystals accompanying rolling and annealing and the influence of constraints at grain boundaries in an aggregate on the behavior of individual grains. The present study was primarily concerned with the effect of constraints during rolling on the textures of 3 pct Si-Fe crystals initially (001)[100]. Barrett and Levenson5 were among the first to observe an influence of constraints at grain boundaries on the textural changes of individual grains during deformation. They tested Taylor's6 theory of plastic deformation of face-centered-cubic metals in which deformation textures were predicted. About one-third of the grains in poly crystalline aluminum did not rotate as predicted. Grains of the same initial orientation were observed to rotate in different directions under the influence of applied stress and anisotropic flow of neighboring grains. Recently, the various inhomogeneities of flow of crystals in an aggregate have been studied7'8 and reviewed.9-11 Barrett and Levenson" rolled (001) [loo] iron single crystals inserted in close-fitting holes in copper to limit lateral flow and to simulate rolling of grains in an aggregate. Deformation bands were formed after a 90 pct reduction in thickness, and the cold-rolling texture contained two components described by rotating the (001)[100] about 35 deg in both directions around the normal of the rolling plane. No annealing textures were reported. Chen and Maddin13 rolled molybdenum single crystals initially (001) [loo]. The crystals were mounted between two hardened silicon-iron plates and 96 pct reduced in thickness by rolling at a low rate of reduction, about 0.0001 in. per pass. The deformation texture had the mean orientation of (001) [loo], and the azimuthal spread included orientations described by rotating (001) [loo] about 35 deg in both directions about the pole of the rolling plane. The presence of deformation bands were not reported by Chen and Maddin or detected in subsequent work of Ujiiye and Maddin.14 The ideal orientation of the annealing texture was (001) [loo]. Recently, Walter and Hibbard 15 reported on the textures of 3 pct Si-Fe alloy crystals initially near (001) [loo]. Each crystal was in an aggregate cut from a columnar ingot. After 66 pct reduction by rolling, the texture consisted of two symmetrical components which had the orientations described by rotating (001) [loo] about 30 deg in both directions about the pole of the rolling plane. Annealing texture was near (001) [loo]. In the above work, the textures of body-centered-cubic crystals were studied after rolling under the influence of constraints. The deformation textures varied from (001) [loo] to near the (001) [110] type and appeared sensitive to the manner in which the crystals were rolled. No textural data were available on the effect of rolling (001) [loo] crystals with and without constraints. The purpose of the present work was to evaluate the influence of constraints during rolling on the textures of 3 pct Si-Fe crystals initially (001) [loo]. Rolling and annealing textures were studied for a) crystals rolled with no constraints at different rates of reduction, and b) crystals rolled with constraints imposed by neighboring grains and by plates between which a crystal was "sandwiched". PROCEDURES AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES Data are presented on four crystals which are representative of several crystals studied. The orientation of each crystal prior to rolling was (001) [loo] as determined by the Laue X-ray back-reflection method," i.e., each crystal had an (001) within 3 deg of the rolling plane and [100] within 3 deg of the rolling direction. These crystals were obtained from two iron-base alloys containing 3 pct Si by weight which were prepared by vacuum melting electrolytic iron and a commercial grade of silicon. Crystals 1, 2, and S-1 were cut from a large single crystal grown from the melt of one alloy by the Bridgman technique17 in an apparatus described by

Jan 1, 1960