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By H. C. Miller

The gas-lift method of flowing oil from wells is the outstanding feature of petroleum technology today. Its forerunner, the air-lift, was used successfully first, in the Baku fields of Russia, in 1899, and later in the Gulf Coast fields of Texas and Louisiana and the Kern River field of California. It is still used to a limited extent in certain oil fields. The use of compressed natural gas for lifting oil from wells has supplanted the air-lift method in a measure in those fields where a sufficient quantity of gas accompanies the oil to make the gas-lift possible, or where natural gas is plentiful and inexpensive. We find, therefore, in California, that natural gas is used at practically every well where a gaseous medium is employed to flow the oil. The use of natural gas has many advantages over that of air. It is possible to recover and save the gasoline from the gas that accompanies the oil to the surface. This gasoline would be wasted if air were used as the lifting medium. Also, certain proportions of air and gas form an explosive mixture that cannot be handled safely by compressors. Another advantage that gas has over air is that gas under pressure is more soluble in oil. Gas in solution in oil reduces the viscosity of the oil that is being produced and causes it to flow more readily through the tubing and flow lines. The gas-lift has made it possible to recover many thousands of barrels of oil from deep wells in California that could not have been produced otherwise. It would not have been economical, had it been mechanically possible, to produce such wells as the world's deepest producing oil well (Miley Athen's No. 6, Rosecrans field, California) by any other method of pumping known today. At this well, production is obtained from between 7305 and 7591 ft. and 11 months after completion of the well, production was being maintained on the gas-lift at approximately 2000 bbl. a month. The crookedness of the hole, or its diameter and depth will not prevent the successful application of gas-lift pumping when other conditions are favorable.

Jan 1, 1928

LIST OF THE MEETINGS OF THE INSTITUTE AND THEIR LOCALITIES FROM ITS ORGANIZATION Transactions Number Place Date Vol Page I Wilkes-Barre, Pa * May, 1871 I 3 II Bethlehem, Pa August, 1871 I 10 III Troy, N Y November, 1871 I 13 IV Philadelphia, Pa February, 1872 I 17 V New York, N Y * May, 1872 I 20 VI Pittsburg, Pa October, 1872 I 25 VII Boston, Mass February, 1873 I 28 VIII Philadelphia, Pa * May, 1873 II 3 IX Easton, Pa October, 1873 II 7 X New York, N Y February, 1874 II 11 XI St Louis, Mo * May, 1874 III 3 XII Hazleton, Pa October, 1874 III 8 XIII New Haven, Conn February, 1875 III 15 XIV Dover, N J * May, 1875 IV 3 XV Cleveland, 0 October, 1875 IV 9 XVI Washington, D C February, 1876 IV 8 XVII Philadelphia, Pat June, 1876, V XVIII Philadelphia, Pa October, 1876 V 9 XIX New York, N Y February, 1877 v 27 XX Wilkes-Barre, Pa * May, 1877 vi 3 XXI Amenia, N Y October, 1877 vi 10

Jan 1, 1917

By R. F. Lynch, J. D. Wood

The Al-1.0 pct Mg alloy 565 7 was studied using optical microscopy and electron microprobe X-ray analysis. Constituent particles were found to exist inter-dendritically in the as-cast material in a region of precipitate free a -aluminum. Five phases besides a fine precipitate and a-Al were identified in the cast structure: Fel3, Fe2Al7, Mg2Al3, CUMgAl2, and Cu2FeAl7. Thermal treatments conducted for 100 hr at 1180°, 1130°, 1080°, 1030°, 980°, and 880° F revealed a general dissolution and spheroidization of the in-terdendritic constituent network observed in the cast structure. The principal constituents present in the thermally treated structures were FeAl3 and Fe2Al7 with the relative amount of Fe2A17 to FeAl3 increasing with a decrease in the treatment temperature. The phases Present in the wrought structure were identical to those observed after the thermal treatments, with the constituent particles strung out in the direction of rolling. ALLOY 5657 is a nonheat-treatable commercial purity Al-1.0 pct Mg alloy utilized extensively because of its bright finishing characteristics. This investigation was conducted to determine the constituents present in 5657 alloy, and to study the effect of extended thermal treatments on morphology. Numerous studies have been carried out to establish the equilibrium diagrams for various aluminum systems,1-3 with phase identification based on X-ray analysis, morphology, and the etching response of relatively large particles. Phragmen4 conducted a study of the phases in aluminum eutectic systems and compiled a "corrected" table of etching responses, drawing on his work plus that of Schrader,5 Keller and Wilcox,6 and Mondolfo.7 A review of the original work of Keller and Wilcox, and Mondolfo, which was concerned with the constituents found in commercial alloys, reveals that in numerous cases their etching responses differ from those reported by Phragmen and from each other. These inconsistencies may occur because a specific constituent will react to a given etch in a varying manner depending upon its size, the elements dissolved in the phase, the other constituents surrounding a phase, and the solute content of the matrix. Work with a commercial orientation was conducted on alloys 2024 and 3003 by Sperry8,9 and on alloy 3003 by Barker,10 where the relationship between the phase diagram and the nonequilibrium structure of an alloy was examined. Backerud11 investigated the A1-Fe binary system and found that at high cooling rates the equilibrium eutectic reaction forming a-A1 and FeA13 is replaced by another lower temperature eutectic reaction forming a-A1 and metastable FeAl6, a constituent first identified by Hollingsworth et al.12 Most of the above mentioned studies were conducted on materials having a significantly greater alloy content than 5657 alloy, where the relatively small size and sparse distribution of second phase particles hinders the process of identifying constituents. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Material with a composition as given in Table I was examined in the as-direct chill cast, hot rolled and cold rolled conditions, and after thermal treatment of the cast structure. Thermal treatments were terminated by a water quench. Microscopic examination was conducted under various lighting conditions following the application of standard etchants as specified in Table 11. A semi-quantitative electron microprobe X-ray analysis was conducted for Al, Mg, Fe, Cu, Si, Zn, and Ti. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Microstructure of the As-Cast Material. Particles of second phase material were found to exist inter-dendritically, principally in regions of precipitate free a-Al, as illustrated in Fig. 1. Adjacent to the ingot edge was a region of inverse segregation, resulting in an increased amount of second phase material containing large sized particles which aided in phase identification. Phase Identification. Cast Structure. Five phases besides a-Al and a fine precipitate were identified using optical microscopy and electron microprobe X-ray analysis, as presented in Tables II and III, respectively. FeA13 and Fe2A17 are often found with Fe2A17 forming a sheath around the core of FeAl3, resulting from an incomplete peritectoid reaction. These phases have a nearly identical appearance under white light, although they are easily differentiated under crossed polarizers, as characteristically illustrated in Figs. 2(a) and 2(b), respectively. Microprobe analysis con-

Jan 1, 1970

By Owen Thornton

Recently equations have been presented by Rose and Bruce' and by Rose², showing how the relative permeability of a reservoir rock may be determined from the capillary character of the rock. In particular, equations were developed to show the relationship between capillary pressure and the effective permeability to the wetting phase in a poly-phase flow system. The equations are as follows (nomenclature the same as in the Rose and Bruce paper) Rose and Bruce assume that the average length of path (L,), which the wetting fluid follows in flowing through a porous media is independent of the saturation to the wetting phase, so that 1 is a constant dependent only on the k rock, and the permeability to the wetting phase is a function of the saturation and of the capillnry pressure: In measuring the flow of ekctric current through partially saturated core samples, it has been observed that the electrical resistance usually is not a simple linear function of saturation. This fact indicates that the average length of path in the flow of electric current is not independent of saturation, but rather that the tortuosity of the path depends upon the average saturation to the conducting fluid as well as upon the characteristics of the rock. itself. Inasmuch as the flow of fluid and the flow of electric current in many respects are analogous, it may be indicated further that the length of path for fluid also may not be independent of saturation. The following relationship can be derived to express the resistance to flow of electric current through a core sample partially saturated with conductive wetting phase, the non-wetting phase being non-conductive: where L is the average length of path followed by the current in flowing through a length L of partially saturated core, where L is the length of current path when the core is fully saturated, and where Rs and R, are the specific resistivities of the partially saturated and saturated core sample, respectively. It will be noted that R., the specific resistivity of the core sample when S, = 1.0, is equal to the "formation resistivity factor"' multiplied by the specific resistivity of the saturating fluid. If it be assumed that the average lengths of path for fluid flow and for the flow of electric current are the same, then equation (5) may be combined with equations (l), (2) and (3) to give the following relationship: The above equation suggests including a correction for tortuosity when calculating the relative permeability of a reservoir rock to a wetting phase. The correction factor may be obtained from the resistivity-saturation relationship. For instance, the following calcu- lations are obtained for the unconsoli-dated sands described by Leverett Kw Kw Sw R°/Rs Pt/Pc¹ (Calc.) (Obs.) 0.30 0.08 0.88 0.02 0.0 0.40 0.16 0.94 0.06 0.04 0.50 0.27 0.97 0.14 0.11 0.60 0.40 0.98 0.26 0.21 0.70 0.53 0.98 0.39 0.35 0.80 0.68 0.99 0.57 0.54 0.90 0.84 0.99 0.77 0.76 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 It will be noted that the agreement between the calculated points and the observed data is rather good. Further investigation of the above method for obtaining relative permeabilities may be merited. For many sands within specified ranges of saturations the following relationship has been found to hold approximately': — =SW"......(7) Rs The exponent n in the above equation has been found to equal two for many sands so that equation (6) reduces to the following: The writer acknowledges the permission of The Texas Co. to submit this note for publication. 1. Walter Rose and W. A. Bruce—Jnl. of Pet. Tech., Vol. 1, No. 5, p. 127 (1949). 2. Walter Rose—Jnl. of Petr. Tech., Vol. 1, No. 5, p. 111 (1949). 3. G. E. Archie— -Trans. AIME, 146, 54 (1942). 4. M. C. Leverett— Trans. AIME, 142, 152 (1941). 5. M. C. Leverett—Trans. AIME, 132, 149 (1939).

Jan 1, 1949

By Owen Thornton

Recently equations have been presented by Rose and Bruce' and by Rose², showing how the relative permeability of a reservoir rock may be determined from the capillary character of the rock. In particular, equations were developed to show the relationship between capillary pressure and the effective permeability to the wetting phase in a poly-phase flow system. The equations are as follows (nomenclature the same as in the Rose and Bruce paper) Rose and Bruce assume that the average length of path (L,), which the wetting fluid follows in flowing through a porous media is independent of the saturation to the wetting phase, so that 1 is a constant dependent only on the k rock, and the permeability to the wetting phase is a function of the saturation and of the capillnry pressure: In measuring the flow of ekctric current through partially saturated core samples, it has been observed that the electrical resistance usually is not a simple linear function of saturation. This fact indicates that the average length of path in the flow of electric current is not independent of saturation, but rather that the tortuosity of the path depends upon the average saturation to the conducting fluid as well as upon the characteristics of the rock. itself. Inasmuch as the flow of fluid and the flow of electric current in many respects are analogous, it may be indicated further that the length of path for fluid also may not be independent of saturation. The following relationship can be derived to express the resistance to flow of electric current through a core sample partially saturated with conductive wetting phase, the non-wetting phase being non-conductive: where L is the average length of path followed by the current in flowing through a length L of partially saturated core, where L is the length of current path when the core is fully saturated, and where Rs and R, are the specific resistivities of the partially saturated and saturated core sample, respectively. It will be noted that R., the specific resistivity of the core sample when S, = 1.0, is equal to the "formation resistivity factor"' multiplied by the specific resistivity of the saturating fluid. If it be assumed that the average lengths of path for fluid flow and for the flow of electric current are the same, then equation (5) may be combined with equations (l), (2) and (3) to give the following relationship: The above equation suggests including a correction for tortuosity when calculating the relative permeability of a reservoir rock to a wetting phase. The correction factor may be obtained from the resistivity-saturation relationship. For instance, the following calcu- lations are obtained for the unconsoli-dated sands described by Leverett Kw Kw Sw R°/Rs Pt/Pc¹ (Calc.) (Obs.) 0.30 0.08 0.88 0.02 0.0 0.40 0.16 0.94 0.06 0.04 0.50 0.27 0.97 0.14 0.11 0.60 0.40 0.98 0.26 0.21 0.70 0.53 0.98 0.39 0.35 0.80 0.68 0.99 0.57 0.54 0.90 0.84 0.99 0.77 0.76 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 It will be noted that the agreement between the calculated points and the observed data is rather good. Further investigation of the above method for obtaining relative permeabilities may be merited. For many sands within specified ranges of saturations the following relationship has been found to hold approximately': — =SW"......(7) Rs The exponent n in the above equation has been found to equal two for many sands so that equation (6) reduces to the following: The writer acknowledges the permission of The Texas Co. to submit this note for publication. 1. Walter Rose and W. A. Bruce—Jnl. of Pet. Tech., Vol. 1, No. 5, p. 127 (1949). 2. Walter Rose—Jnl. of Petr. Tech., Vol. 1, No. 5, p. 111 (1949). 3. G. E. Archie— -Trans. AIME, 146, 54 (1942). 4. M. C. Leverett— Trans. AIME, 142, 152 (1941). 5. M. C. Leverett—Trans. AIME, 132, 149 (1939).

Jan 1, 1949

LIST OF THE MEETINGS OF THE INSTITUTE AND THEIR LOCALITIES FROM ITS ORGANIZATION Transactions Number Place Date Vol Page I Wilkes-Barre, Pa * May, 1871 I 3 II Bethlehem, Pa August, 1871 I 10 III Troy, N Y November, 1871 I 13 IV Philadelphia, Pa February, 1872 I 17 V New York, N Y * May, 1872 I 20 VI Pittsburg, Pa October, 1872 I 25 VII Boston, Mass February, 1873 I 28 VIII Philadelphia, Pa * May, 1873 II 3 IX Easton, Pa October, 1873 II 7 X New York, N Y February, 1874 II 11 XI St Louis, Mo * May, 1874 III 3 XII Hazleton, Pa October, 1874 III 8 XIII New Haven, Conn February, 1875 III 15 XIV Dover, N J * May, 1875 IV 3 XV Cleveland, 0 October, 1875 IV 9 XVI Washington, D C February, 1876 IV 8 XVII Philadelphia, Pat June, 1876, V XVIII Philadelphia, Pa October, 1876 V 9 XIX New York, N Y February, 1877 v 27 XX Wilkes-Barre, Pa * May, 1877 vi 3 XXI Amenia, N Y October, 1877 vi 10

Jan 1, 1917

LIST OF THE MEETINGS OF THE INSTITUTE AND THEIR LOCALITIES FROM ITS ORGANIZATION Transactions Number Place Date Vol Page I Wilkes-Barre, Pa * May, 1871 I 3 II Bethlehem, Pa August, 1871 I 10 III Troy, N Y November, 1871 I 13 IV Philadelphia, Pa February, 1872 I 17 V New York, N Y * May, 1872 I 20 VI Pittsburg, Pa October, 1872 I 25 VII Boston, Mass February, 1873 I 28 VIII Philadelphia, Pa * May, 1873 II 3 IX Easton, Pa October, 1873 II 7 X New York, N Y February, 1874 II 11 XI St Louis, Mo * May, 1874 III 3 XII Hazleton, Pa October, 1874 III 8 XIII New Haven, Conn February, 1875 III 15 XIV Dover, N J * May, 1875 IV 3 XV Cleveland, 0 October, 1875 IV 9 XVI Washington, D C February, 1876 IV 8 XVII Philadelphia, Pat June, 1876, V XVIII Philadelphia, Pa October, 1876 V 9 XIX New York, N Y February, 1877 v 27 XX Wilkes-Barre, Pa * May, 1877 vi 3 XXI Amenia, N Y October, 1877 vi 10

Jan 1, 1910

LIST OF THE MEETINGS OF THE INSTITUTE AND THEIR LOCALITIES FROM ITS ORGANIZATION Transactions Number Place Date Vol Page I Wilkes-Barre, Pa * May, 1871 I 3 II Bethlehem, Pa August, 1871 I 10 III Troy, N Y November, 1871 I 13 IV Philadelphia, Pa February, 1872 I 17 V New York, N Y * May, 1872 I 20 VI Pittsburg, Pa October, 1872 I 25 VII Boston, Mass February, 1873 I 28 VIII Philadelphia, Pa * May, 1873 II 3 IX Easton, Pa October, 1873 II 7 X New York, N Y February, 1874 II 11 XI St Louis, Mo * May, 1874 III 3 XII Hazleton, Pa October, 1874 III 8 XIII New Haven, Conn February, 1875 III 15 XIV Dover, N J * May, 1875 IV 3 XV Cleveland, 0 October, 1875 IV 9 XVI Washington, D C February, 1876 IV 8 XVII Philadelphia, Pat June, 1876, V XVIII Philadelphia, Pa October, 1876 V 9 XIX New York, N Y February, 1877 v 27 XX Wilkes-Barre, Pa * May, 1877 vi 3 XXI Amenia, N Y October, 1877 vi 10

Jan 1, 1917

By Thomas H. Leggett

IN speaking of the mining and economic conditions prevailing at the present time on the Rand, it is not my intention to go into the details of the mining-practice, since this has been already well described both in the Transactions1 and elsewhere,2 but rather to take a more comprehensive view of the industry and its surroundings as a. whole, marking its general development and the lines of its future progress. In a. paper entitled Deep-Level Shafts on the Witwatersrand, with Remarks on a Method of Working the Greatest Number of Deep-Level Mines with the Fewest Possible Shafts,3 presented to this Institute in August, 1900, I drew attention to the great cost of sinking the very deep vertical shafts that were then being seriously proposed as necessary for the development of the deeper areas, pointing out the strong advisability of working this ground by means of inclines to be sunk from the existing shafts of from 3,000 to 4,000 ft. in vertical depth. In this paper it is stated (1:). 975): "In short, practice upon the Rand now tends towards fewer vertical shafts and more underground inclines, especially for the very deep mining about to be undertaken." In consequence, the 6,000-ft. vertical shafts, at one time so much discussed, have never been started, and they do not now seem likely ever to be. The necessity of placing all deep shafts further apart in order to make them control and exhaust larger areas was also dwelt upon. This economy was vitally necessary for both 1 Gold-Mining in the Transvaal, South Africa, John Hays Hammond, xxxi., S17 to 855 (1901). R Engineering and Mining Journal, vol. lxxxv., p. 53 (1908). ' Trans., xxx., 947 to 987 (1900).

Jan 5, 1908

By Larry Kaufman

A useful method for estimating the entropy of NaCl type compounds has been developed by combining the Debye theory of specific heat with the Lindemann formula. This method pemnits calculation of the entropy from a knowledge of the atomic weight, atomic volume, and melting point of the compound. Comparison of the calculated and observed entropies of 35 NaCl type compounds over a wide temperature range yields good agreement thus establishing the usefulness of the method. Application of the method to other crystal types is also discussed. KUBASCHEWSKI~ has suggested a useful method of estimating the enthalpy of formation of inter-metallic compounds from a knowledge of the crystal structure, lattice parameter, and heats of sublimation of the component elements. This method is quite valuable in predicting the tendency for compound formation in a given system and is of particular value in considering systems for which no experimental data are available. In order to supplement the enthalpy calculation afforded by Kubschewski's method, it would be of value to be able to estimate the entropy of compounds so that the entropy and free energy of formation could be evaluated. Although a considerable body of such data determined by calorimetric and equilibration techniques exists at present, the difficulty of making such measurements (particularly at high temperatures) and the ever increasing number of new compounds which are of interest make the desirability of such a computational method clear. This paper deals with a method for calculating the entropy of a compound from a knowledge of the atomic weight, atomic volume, and melting point. Since these data are generally easier to determine and therefore more readily available than thermo-dynamic data, they should provide an additional tool in estimating the stability and reactivity of compounds at high temperatures. I) THE ENTROPY OF PURE METALS As a first approximation, the specific heat of a pure metal can be represented by a sum of terms where C,($/tI is the vibrational specific heat calculated on the basis of the Debye theory, lo4 TC, (0/T) is an approximation to the Cp - C, correction. T is the electronic specific heat, and Cp (p) is the magnetic specific heat. Although the Debye theory does not provide a complete description of the vibrational specific heat, i.e., the Debye temperature 0 is not a constant, it does provide a good approximation when used properly. Blackman6'7 has written several reviews on this subject discussing the different values of 0 determined by various methods (specific heat, X-rays, elastic constants, electrical resistivity, and so forth), as well as the observed temperature dependence of 0 with T. In the present case the 0 in Eq. [I] naturally refers to the specific heat 0. The variation of Debye 0 (as determined from specific heat measurements) with temperature is observed to exhibit its most radical behavior at very low temperatures. At higher temperatures the 8 values are observed to become more nearly constant. Blackman6'7 has presented the variation of 0 with temperature for several metals. His tabulation is reproduced in Table I. Reference to Table I shows that above a certain temperature level, 0 remains fairly constant. The value of 0 which is most useful in computing the specific heat, and hence the entropy, is the value of 0 in the range 0/6 « T « 0. In 1910, Lindemann' suggested a relation for estimating Debye 0 values. According to this formula, where V is the atomic volume, T is the melting point in 'K, M is the atomic weight, and CL is a constant. Mott and Jones9 present this formula and state that there is at present no satisfactory theoretical explanation, but that it does have an empirical basis. By using the valuesof 0 in Table I along with known1' values of M, T, and the molar volume VM, where the Lindemann constant can be evaluated. This

Jan 1, 1962

By A. E. Bellis

There is a wide difference of opinion among rifle experts in the matter of barrel steel, and the relative importance to the life of the barrel of the steel's composition, heat treatment, structure, and physical properties. In order to promote discussion, which it is hoped may' lead to the discovery of the source of some of the traditional beliefs on the subject, the results of some tests are presented here, with data on heat treating, physical tests, and erosion. The detailed metallographic study of this steel is given in another paper.l The conclusions from these tests should be capable of wider application than their direct bearing on the barrel-steel problem. The Government specifications for barrel steel for model 1903 rifle (Springfield) call for carbon 0.50 to 0.60 per cent., manganese 1.00 to 1.29 per cent., silicon under 0.25 per cent., sulfur under 0.06 per cent., phosphorus under 0.08 per cent. The minimum physical requirements are: Tensile strength, 110,000 lb. per sq. in. (7733 kg. per sq. cm.); yield point, 75,000 lb. per sq. in (5472 kg. per sq. cm.); elongation, 20 per cent.; reduction of area, 45 per cent. Material fulfilling these requirements gives practically no failures when proof-fired, with charge of 70,000 lb. per sq. in. pressure, which is 40 per cent. in excess of the service charge. The turning and drilling operations show up any seams or laps such as accidentally occur even in the best heats of open-hearth steel, so that faulty stock is practically all eliminated before proof-firing. These physical requirements are met either by rolling billets at a proper temperature down to the form of tapered barrel blanks or by heat treating bars that have been upset to cnlarge the breech section. The transformation temperature of this steel, on heating, is around 1350" F. (732' C.), varying somewhat with the composition and the rate of heating. The actual treatment of the barrel blanks, as carried out by different manufacturers, gives four kinds of barrels, which will be called A, B, C, and D, for convenience. A barrels result from heat treating upset blanks by quenching at

Jan 1, 1920

By Charles W. Henderson

THE influence of mineral production on the development of the western United States has been profound. From 1848 to 1860, there was only gold production, the effect of silver began in 1860, and from then on both had a powerful influence. Lead production started in 1863, copper in 1863, and zinc in 1885, but was small until 1898. Gold alone was therefore the stimulus of the early settlement and exploration of the Western States.. But mineral deposits caused neither acquisition of territory nor determination of boundary lines. Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, and parts of Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado were formally acquired from Mexico fourteen days after the actual date of the discovery (January 19, 1848)1.2 of gold at Sutters Mill, near the present town of Coloma, California (a discovery which, with the immediate new discoveries, aroused the world several months later) ; but the acquisition was by treaty (under negotiation for some time but signed February 2, 1848)3 in settlement of a war involving the boundaries of the grassy plains of Texas, an area at that time not known to contain any metals, and to date found to have but few metal deposits.4 The international boundary at 49º latitude for the far northwest states was determined by causes other than mineral deposits.

Jan 1, 1933

By Freeman Bishop

The Bureau of Mines is working on a long-term program to completely revolutionize mining-to create a mine-systems technology that integrates the need to recover minerals at low cost under safe and healthful working conditions while protecting the environment. Everyone should be brought into the planning process preceding each new mining development, the Interior Department urges, and Assistant Secretary Hollis M. Dole seems determined to push this kind of systems approach with everything he can move.

Jan 1, 1970

By A. H. Daane, A. S. Wilson

The U-Cr system is of the simple eutectic type with some solid solubility of chromium in r and ß uranium. The eutectic occurs at 20 atomic pet Cr and melts at 859°C. The maximum solubility of chromium in y uranium is 4 atomic pet at the eutectic temperature, and in ß uranium the solubility is estimated to be 1 atomic pet. y-ß and ß-a transformations were found to occur at 737°estimatedt° and 612°C respectively. DURING 1944 and 1945, the U-Cr constitution diagram was studied in this laboratory as a part of a research program on uranium metallurgy in the Manhattan Project, and the work was described in a Manhattan Project report issued in December 1945. This paper is based on that report, which has been declassified. Prior to this study, it had been shown by other Manhattan Project workers that the low Cr-U alloys could be quenched to retain the form of uranium. Experimental The uranium used in this work was massive metal prepared in this laboratory and contained less than 0.1 pct of other elements. The chromium was 200 mesh powder obtained from the A. D. McKay Co. and was found on analysis to be 99.5 pct Cr with 0.3 pct Fe the major impurity. Alloys, weighing 400 to 600 g, were prepared by induction heating the components to 1700°C in slip-cast ZrO, crucibles in a vacuum of 3x103 mm Hg. TO prevent too violent agitation of the melt by the induction field with subsequent crucible breakage and sample loss, the ZrO2 crucible was placed in a graphite crucible, which was surrounded by a layer of powdered carbon insulation 2 to 3 cm thick. Polished vertical sections of the alloys were examined microscopically to confirm their homogeneity. Heating and cooling curves were taken on the alloys by reheating them in ZrO, crucibles to 1200°C and inserting a mullite-protected chromel-alumel thermocouple into the melt by means of a slip seal in the vacuum head of the furnace. A recording potentiometer traced the curves which had a slope of from 3" to 6" per min. Samples of the alloys were prepared for metallo-graphic examination by conventional mechanical polishing techniques followed by an electrolytic polish in an ethylene glycol-phosphoric acid-ethyl alcohol bath. The structure of the alloys was brought out clearly by this procedure so that no further etching was required. Samples for chemical analysis were taken from drillings from the top, center, and bottom sections of the alloys. The uranium was determined by titra-tion with Ce(SO1)2, while the chromium was titrated with FeSO,; the uranium and chromium totaled at least 99.6 pct in all of the alloys prepared. X-ray samples were prepared by filing bulk specimens in a helium-filled glove box and annealing the resulting powder in a zirconium-gettered helium atmosphere. A 114.6 mm diam Debye-Scherrer camera and a Weyland nonsymmetrical self-focusing camera were used with filtered copper radiation to obtain the powder X-ray diffraction data. Results The data obtained in this study have been combined to construct the constitution diagram of the U-Cr system shown in Fig. 1 where the arrests observed in cooling curves are indicated by dots. The liquidus arrest was quite distinct in thermal data taken on alloys in the range 0 to 20 atomic pct Cr. The eutectic arrest was not observed in studies on the 2.5 and 4.5 pct Cr samples but appeared in the 7.5 pct samples, which suggested some solubility of chromium in y uranium. On quenching from 859 °C, the 2.5 pct sample showed but one phase while the 4.5 pct sample contained a small amount of the eutectic along the grain boundaries; see Figs. 2 and 3. From this the maximum solubility of chromium in r uranium has been set at 4 pct. X-ray studies on these samples showed that the r phase was not retained at room temperature by quenching, but in each case a pattern was observed .which has been identified with the ß phase of uranium. Thermal data show the y-ß transformation of uranium lowered to 737°C as a consequence of this solubility. On quenching from the ß range (660°C), precipitation of chromium in the primary uranium is observed in the 2.5 and 4.5 pct Cr samples (see Figs. 4 and 5),

Jan 1, 1956

By J. G. Savins

Certain types of macromolecules added to water and salt solutions flowing in turbulent motion can reduce the pressure gradient. Alternatively, the volumetric capacity of a pipe for these fluids is increased by the presence of these materials. Examples presented show that the drag reduction can become significant. Thus, the presence of 0.28 per cent of a gum derivative in a solution of sodium chloride flowing at 200 gal/min in a 1.89-in. pipe yields a pressure drop which is 0.44 of the single-phase drop measured under the same conditions of turbulent flow; the addition of 0.1 per cent of a vinyl derivative to a I-in. water line yields a throughput capacity which is 1.78 of the single-phase capacity at the same pressure drop. It is further shown that these phenomena are distinctly different from previous observations with other classes of non-Newtonian systems. There a simple lowering of friction factors below the levels predicted from the resistance laws for Newtonian fluids is associated with a suppression of turbulent motion. A rational physical explanation for drag reduction is advanced. Briefly, the proposed mechanism is a storage by the molecular elastic elements of the macromolecules in solution of the kinetic energy of the turbulent motion. INTRODUCTION This study was inspired by a recent review of some paradoxical drag reduction phenomena in turbulent pipe f1ow.I Under very moderate conditions of turbulent flow, the pressure gradient necessary to pump solutions containing certain specific kinds of polymers, fibers and metallic soaps may become appreciably lower than that required* to pump the solvent, i.e., water or a low-viscosity hydrocarbon, under identical flow rates in the same conduit. As shown by our review, this phenomenon of drag reduction in turbulent duct flow was first noted during the second world war, apparently arising in connection with the development of flame warfare weapons. Since that time several papers illustrating this phenomenon have appeared: Toms, Oldroyd,3 Agoston et al., Bundrant and Matthews, Robertson and Mason,6 Ousterhout and Hall,7 Daily and Bugliarello~ Lummus, Anderson, and Fox. 9 That there are practical applications for techniques which increase discharge or decrease the pressure necessary to transport a liquid through a pipeline is illustrated in the patents which have issued which take advantage of this peculiar phenomenon, e.g., Mysels,l0 Dever, Harbour, and Seifert.11 One also finds fragmentary evidence of this effect in the data pertaining to a few of the polymeric solutions studied by Shaver12 and Dodge.13 However, these investigators were concerned with the development of friction factor vs Reynolds number correlations for a variety of non-Newtonian solutions and suspensions, rather than in a study of drag reduction-. A similar kind of drag reduction effect has been observed in gases. Sproull, for example, reports that adding dust to air flowing in turbulent motion through a pipe results in a lowering of the pressure gradient at identical flow rates. There are also military applications for reducing the drag on hydrodynamic vehicles. For example, the possibility of injecting a rheologically complex fluid into the boundary layers of bodies to reduce the skin friction has been investigated by Fabulal5 and Granville.16 Along somewhat different lines are the drag reduction studies of Kramer.17118 He has shown that skin friction can be reduced by covering the surface of a vehicle with a flexible skin. The effect is apparently due to the boundary layer being stabilized by the presence of the skin. Drag reduction by means of coexisting gas and liquid boundary layers, e.g., film boiling and continuous gas injection, has been proposed by Bradfield, Barkdoll, and Byrne,19 Cess and Sparrow,20'21 Sparrow, Jonsson, and Eckert.22 Here the skin friction occurs between a vapor and a surface rather than between a liquid and a surface. There are several references in the literature to friction-factor correlations for non-Newtonian solutions and suspensions: Shaver and Merri11,23 Dodge and Metzner, Clapp,25 and Thomas.26

Jan 1, 1965

By George M. Enos, Robert J. Anderson

This paper gives a summary of tests made on the accelerated electrolytic corrosion of the tin brass, 70:29:1 copper-zinc-tin (admiralty metal), of different grain sixes in various electrolytes. There has been great difference of opinion as to the effect of grain size on the corrosion rate of brass, particularly in condenser-tube practice, but so far as is known no information has been published on the subject. It has been assumed, on the basis of the amorphous-cement theory, that fine-grained brass would corrode more rapidly than coarse-grained because the amorphous phase is more soluble than the crystalline and there is more cement per unit area exposed in the fine-grained material. In previous work on the corrosion of metals and alloys in acid mine waters from coal mines,1,2 it was found that the grain size, within a restricted range, had practically no effect on the corrosion of the brass 70:29:1 copper-zinc-tin: In the tests made, samples of three grain sizes were included; viz., 0.025, 0.035, and 0.075 mm. diameter (1600, 817, and 177 gr. per sq. mm., respectively), and the average losses on exposure to the most acid of three waters were 7.07, 6.80, and 6.72 mg. per sq. cm. per day (24 hr.), respectively. No distinguishing features were observed on microscopic examination of the corroded samples. In two other mine waters, the corrosion losses were substantially the same for the respective samples. These tests were -incidental to other tests and were not sufficiently comprehensive to warrant drawing definite conclusions. In further work with the accelerated electrolytic corrosion test, as developed recently in the Bureau of Mines, tests were made

Jan 1, 1924

Owing to circumstances which are entirely unavoidable, the cost of rendering to Institute Members the services which they have been ac-customed to expect from the Institute has increased enormously, especi-ally during the past year. The cost of printing has increased 20 per cent. and another 30 per cent. is expected. There is no recourse; the Institute must pay this or cease publishing. The increase for supplies and office force will be very great. Justice to our employees, whose cost for living expenses has risen by leaps and bounds, demands an increase in. wages, wholly aside from the fact that the employees need not and will not stay. The Institute is, therefore, faced with the alternative of greatly re-ducing its service to the members or else of asking from them a small increase in clues. An amendment to the Constitution has been offered by the members increasing the clues to $15 per year, which cannot become effective until 1921. This still leaves us as the engineering society with the lowest annual clues, except only one, whose dues are $15 per year. To help meet the immediate emergency, the Directors have exercised the authority vested in them by the Constitution and By-Laws and requested the members to pay $3.00 for the Transactions to be issued during the year 1920, which is very much less than the cost of publication. It is the opinion of the Board that the members will prefer to pay this slightly additional expense rather than to have the Institute take a backward step in respect to the services which it is rendering, and which has been increasing constantly in amount, as well as in unit cost, during the past seven or eight years.

Jan 12, 1919

By R. A. Brackett

The most effective means of controlling the dust in the drilling of rock has been found after careful investigation to be collection of this dust at the source. By direct collection, all the dust is collected at the collar of the drill hole and deposited into suitable containers. Equipment for handling this work can be either portable or stationary, depending upon the particular requirements and the application. For most work the portable unit is found most advantageous, and with a capacity capable of handling two drills operating simultaneously. Such a portable unit would consist of a metal cap, or hood, placed against the face of the rock through which the drill steel would be inserted. This hood is connected by a flexible rubber hose to a primary separator, where the bulk of the dust is collected. From here a second length of hose connects to the secondary stage of separation, where the fine particles of dust are collected and which is built in as an integral part of the vacuum producer. Hoods are adapted for vertical, horizontal or stope drilling, and mounted so as to become immediately effective when collaring the hole and remain in place continuously. Such dust collectors can be used with either wet or dry drilling. However, in view of the fact that when drilling dry and using the dust collector, the dust count can be maintained within safe limits, wet drilling becomes unnecessary. Furthermore, it has been found that when using the dust collector not only has the dust hazard been eliminated, but also increased footage can be obtained. Samples taken under a wide variation of conditions indicate that where the dust count required is below five million particles per cubic foot, dust collectors will be required. Opreators, in general, accept the use of this additional equipment favorably, and it is generally felt that such means of collecting the dust will soon be universally adopted. Tests made by the Connecticut Department of Health Bureau of Occupational Diseases show dust counts reduced from 203 million particles to 6.05 million by the use of the dust collector, when drilling dry.

Jan 1, 1934

• A new curriculum for combined liberal arts-engineering education has been announced by 6 middle western colleges. The plan involves three years of ;study at one of the 5 liberal arts colleges and two years and a summer of 'engineering work at Case; graduates receive both the A.B. and B.S. degrees. * A new kind of mining is being pioneered by a pest Virginia coal operator which enables four men to produce 800 tons of coal a day. The machine that makes this possible is a giant auger, 5 ft in diam and 100 ft long. Together with the carriage in which it is moved about, it weighs 60 tons. A mobile, but separate power plant of 1000 hp drives it. ' * The Sorel smelter, which will reduce Allard Lake titanium ores, will utilize five 6-electrode rectangular electric furnaces. Furnace hearth size will be about 18x50 ft, and the furnace will smelt about 300 tons of ore per day, producing 100 tons of iron and 130 tons of 70 pct Ti02 slag. The furnaces will be fed continuously by gravity from charge bins, and tap at intervals of 4 hr or more. Slag will be transferred to a high speed casting machine, using cast iron molds, then crushed for shipment to pigment producers. The iron will be treated to reduce its sulphur content to 0.03 to 0.05 pct, and then cast into small pigs or ingots for shipment to steel mills. • Flying of North Africa's first airborne mangetometer survey was completed this month, covering approximately 20,000 sq km in north central Tunisia for Gulf Exploration Co.'s program there. Mapping was completed in less than 30 days. •Yore than 9000 employees of 11 electric companies are enrolled in a 6-hr program that successfully informs workers on the principles of the American economic system. The course is given by the Middle West Service Co. which claims that before and after employee opinion polls show that the course instilled a better understanding of free enterprise and consequently a favorable response to it. •According to a report issued by the American Geological Institute there will be 2865 graduates in geology, including advanced degrees from U.S. colleges in 1950. This supply of geologists compares with requirements for 1278 at the professional and subprofessional levels. The report contains a detailed statistical study of the supply and demand situation for geologists in the 1949-50 period. •The dark cloud of over-production in the bituminous coal industry has a silver lining, according to Natural Resources Notes. Closing marginal mines, mostly strip and truck mines, will result in lower average costs and higher quality of the coal still produced. The producers that will then constitute the industry will be properly equipped and adequately financed to carry forward an intensive campaign to holdd and increase the markets for bituminous coal. •A light, compact, highly reliable blasting machine which does not rely for its effectiveness on the operator's skill is being tested by the Army Engineers. Operating under all climatic conditions from -65 to 125F, the 50-cap machine consists of a springwound do generator and is waterproof.

Jan 8, 1950

By H. E. Gross

A plausrsle method of drilling beyond the continental shelves is set forth with limitations of the method. The continental shelves comprise the water-covered portions of land masses out to 600 ft. of water, or roo fathoms. The problems and possibilities of drilling beyond this depth are discussed in this paper. Introduction Much attention is being given the problem of developing petroleum beneath the open sea. Geophysical surveys have been made 26 miles offshore1 from the continental United States, and onco offshore ownership is established it is likely that there will be drilling for oil on the continental shelves. More than two years ago the author presented the means for drilling in deep water.2 at the fall meeting of the Petroleum Division of the AIME at Los Angeles. His concepts then were based on the use of rigid foundations suitable for drilling in water up to 600 ft. deep. The present paper suggests a method for drilling in deeper water. Possibilities and Problems of Drilling beyond the continental shelves It being conceded that because restricted deep-water portions of the hydrosphere might contain oil in commercial quantities, and that at any rate it is pertinent to know more of the nature of the lithosphere beneath the hydrosphere, the possibilities and problems of drilling beyond the continental shelves should be set forth. Drilling in open water would offer few if any advantages over drilling on land. These are: 1. The ocean transportation is available to deep-water drilling sites, and extensive pipe lines and roads are unnecessary. 2. Refinery facilities and markets perhaps are established on the near-by shore where adjacent fields on land are nearing depletion. 3. There is freedom from jungle pests and tropical diseases. 4. Competitive drilling is less likely. 5. Extensive areas attractive for development arc not yet under lease or concession. Disadvantages are great and numerous: 1. Storm hazards from wind and wave. 2. Expensive foundations, either rigid or floating. 3. Shutdown times because of weather. 4. Marine Regulations of Federal Bureaus in addition to customary regulations on land. 5. Frequent difficulty in moving men and materials to and from drilling platforms. 6. Extra precautions required in open sea. For drilling in water more than 500 or 600 ft. deep, rigid foundations2 become too costly, and floating foundations must be used, and they must meet the following requirements:

Jan 1, 1947