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By Andrews Allen

WE all remember when, a few years ago the preparation of coal was nothing but a matter of having somebody at the face or somebody in the railroad car pick out the impurities; also the sizes were generally' made" over a bar screen. Anything that was black was coal; and the only matecia1 picked out was the slate or rock-impurities that could be distinguished by eye or by hefting. This was all right as long. & coal could be sold at. a good price. After all, we are all in business to -make the most money honestly out of a certain acreage of coal and a certain plant. For this purpose what is required is the greatest possible recovery of marketable coal and the highest market price.

Jan 1, 1929

THE Institute assembled in the Court-House, on Tuesday evening, May 22d, and was called to order by Vice-President E. B. Coxe. After announcement by the Local Committee of the programme for excursions, the Secretary read the following annual report of the Council The Council, in presenting to the Institute its annual report, has to record a most eventful year in the history of the Institute. Three meetings, as usual, have been held, two in Philadelphia and one in New York. At the Philadelphia meetings in June and October, there were present many distinguished foreign engineers, some of whom contributed communications to the Institute, and took part in its discussions. Sixty-seven papers have, in all, been presented to the Institute, which will be published in the fifth volume of Transactions. There has been an accession to the membership of 1 honorary member, 11 foreign members, and 162 members and associates; -8 have resigned, 6 have died, and 30 have been dropped from the roll, after due notification, for non-payment of dues. The membership now comprises 5 honorary members, 60 foreign members, and 644 members and associates, in all 699. As worthy of especial mention in the work of the year are the Discussions on Technical Education in connection with the American Society of Civil Engineers, and the report of the-International Committee appointed by the Institute to consider the nomenclature of iron and steel. The Discussions on Technical Education have been published in a separate volume, and comprise a valuable and suggestive collection of the views of practical engineers and educators. The report of the International Committee, composed of Messrs. Akerman, of Sweden; Bell, of England; Tunner, of Austria; Gruner, of France; Wedding, of Prussia; and Holley and Egleston, of the United States, has received the careful attention of engineers and metallurgists of all countries, and has met . with very general acceptance. Of the work of the Centennial Committee in Philadelphia the members are generally familiar, from personal experience, and from the detailed report of the committee at the last meeting of the Institute. But the record of the service rendered by this committee would he incomplete without mention of the numerous letters of thanks and formal expressions of obligations received by the Institute from individuals, societies, and governments abroad. The wise and generous spirit in which the work of the committee was planned, and the laborious and self-sacrificing manner in which it was carried out, call for emphatic expressions of thanks from the Institute. The gifts of Centennial exhibits to the Institute, largely as testimonials for services rendered, has necessitated the appointment of a Museum Committee for

Jan 1, 1878

Organisation Place Date 1918 American Society of Mechanical Engineers New York, N. Y. Dec. 3-6 Society for Promotion of Engineering Education, with British Educational Mission Cambridge, Mass. Dec. 6-7 Geological Society of America Boston, Mass. Dec. 28-31 American Association for the Advancement of Science Boston, Mass. Dec. 27- Jan. 2.

Jan 12, 1918

By AIME AIME

THE climax of the various programs and entertainments in connection with the holding of the World Engineering Congress* in Tokyo in October was the complimentary dinner given by the visiting members of the Institute to our members in Japan. At the same time President Bradley conferred an honorary membership on Baron Takuma Dan, the vice-president of the World Engineering Congress.

Jan 1, 1930

By W. D. France, H. l. Burghoff

FABRICATORS of copper and copper alloys have contended with the problems of reconversion during the past year in endeavoring to return to the full-scale production that is demanded of them. The problems have not been easy, for the industry, like so many others, has had to deal with strikes of long duration, and material shortages, particularly in the raw materials, copper, zinc, lead, and tin. Despite all these obstacles, it was possible to gear production to new peacetime records during the latter part of the year. This was made possible not only by the use of multiple shifts of personnel, but also by the improved production equipment, the development of which had been stimulated by wartime necessity. The work of installing new and better equipment is still continuing, and virtually every company is engaged in improving or planning to improve its processes.

Jan 1, 1947

By Charles W. Dickson

Jan 1, 1904

By CLYDE M. EYE

THE Sub-province of Benguet is in the North Central part of the Island of Luzon. Baguio, the capital, is situated on a piateau 5000 ft. above sea level, and is the main health resort of the Philippines. It is rapidly becoming the favorite resort for the China Coast as well, and has many miles of beautiful, curving drives with nearly every pine-covered knoll surmounted by a summer home. The United States Army has a recreation post here, known as Camp John Hay, with a well-equipped hospital, and there is a Country Club with a good golf course adjacent. The weather during the winter months and until late spring is ideal. The business center consists mainly of Chinese and Japanese stores, several hotels, and a large public market, in which are displayed all of the vegetables of the temperate zone, which are flown near Baguio, and many tropical and other products brought up from below. This district is reached from the Coastal Plain either by the old Benguet road built in 1904 by the United States Government, or by the Naguilian road, built some years later. The former is now a toll road, with a line of stages operating over it to and from Des Mortes in connection with the government-owned rail- road. Auto travel from Manila is also along this road, the trip from Manila to Baguio requiring about seven hours, following up the great valley north of Manila for nearly 150 miles to the lower end of the Benguet road, and thence to Baguio, 25 miles. This is an interesting, scenic trip; the road is especially famous for the zig zags where it climbs out of the canyon of the Bued River to the plateau. In the September number of the National Geographic Magazine, a fine aerial picture of this road, as well as of other interesting points in various parts of the Philippines, appears. Freight for the district is taken in mainly over the Naguilian road connecting with the railroad at Bauang. This route follows the ridges of the mountain slope with broad vistas and views of the coast.

Jan 1, 1930

By H. C. Weed

THE Inspiration Consolidated Copper Co., located in the Globe-Miami district at Inspiration, Ariz., became a producer of copper in 1915. From 1915 until 1948, 116,278,000 tons of ore were produced from underground workings by the block-caving system of mining. In April 1948, open-pit ore production from portions of the ore body was started and earlier plans for block-caving in these areas were abandoned. The change was due to economic conditions.

Jan 8, 1950

DISCUSSION, G. Derge and D. J. Girardi presiding N. A. Gokcen (Michigan College of Mining and Technology, Houghton, Mich.)—While the authors present very interesting results on the effect of sulphur upon the solubility of oxygen, they have not established convincingly the lines of two-fold saturation (the valleys in Fig. 2) and the ternary eutectic point. Their contention that sample S-7, upon melting at

Jan 1, 1954

By W. R. Webb, M. O. Peterson

WHEN men drive haulage equipment ranging up to 22 tons in an open pit operation, they must live with the realization that their safety is dependent upon the machines they drive and how well they operate them. The hazards inherent in their jobs must be recognized, met, and defeated. It comprises a never ending struggle toward perfection-an almost un- obtainable goal. The Jones & Laughlin Benson Mines, at Adirondack State Park in New York, created a safety program which resulted in only one three day lost time accident from April 1948 to April 1952. At the very start of the program, management of the open-pit operation recognized the hazards existing at Benson. The program was designed to meet each danger. With a knowledge of the problem faced, the process of minimizing each facet was planned along lines of maintenance of equipment and training of personnel. Its success is evident. In the ever-present struggle, care and maintenance of machines and application of experience to new equipment design are mainstays. Truck Haulage Benson produced 2.9 million tons of crude iron ore and 1.6 million tons of waste in 1951. To do the job, truck mileage reached 500,000 miles. The tremendous mileage emphasized to safety planners, the fact that the more work done, the greater the possibility of risk in haulage operations. Instrumenting the aim of the safest equipment possible is a methodical servicing program. Like other segments of the drive, the servicing program is based on greater production with fewer accidents. Every truck is serviced at least once per eight-hr shift. Examination includes inspecting and tightening wheel studs, checking tires, steering apparatus, lights, brakes, wipers, heaters, fire extinguishers, and refueling. A running history of the equipment's operating life is kept in the form of service and maintenance records. Machine operators are constantly on the alert for malfunctioning of units. At the first sign of trouble the truck is returned to the garage for exchange. No truck functioning incorrectly is kept on the line, regardless of its shift check schedule. The program resulted in a reduction of the number of costly overhauls and cut down the number of haulage accidents. Miscellaneous Mobile Equipment Auxiliary units, operating within the pit, have presented definite safety problems. The highest accident rate in the pit occurred on trucks carrying water and bits to the churn mills. The weight and awkwardness of bits and drill stems, combined with remote delivery points were direct causes of numerous accidents. Here, the problem has been one of equipment handling, rather than haulage. All air compressors for secondary drilling are truck mounted, facilitating mobility. In addition to making it easier to move the equipment, truck mounting has eliminated many of the hazards connected with relocating machinery. By making air compressors independent of other units, drilling operations have been speeded up considerably. Unseen rocks in the path of moving vehicles are a constant source of tire damage. At Benson the problem has been met by supplying each loading crew with a bulldozer for cleanup operations. The pitman directs the dozer operation, and when truck drivers back into loading areas, he serves as an extra set of eyes. Modern Truck Garage Provides Drive-Through Service Simplicity is the essence of any preventative maintenance program. At Benson, a modern garage, with a drive-through service bay simplifies servicing. Shift inspection of the 22-ton haulage units is accomplished with minimum delay and maximum thoroughness. Major repair work and periodic overhauls are done in the repair section of the truck garage. Crane facilities for handling heavy assemblies ease the job and add to the safety factor. Other mobile machinery,

Jan 1, 1952

By John B. Hastings

THE origin of the watery vapors of vulcanism has always been an object of interest and speculation to the seismologist, and as theories of the genetic origin of ore-deposits have of late years been pretty well narrowed down to the expiring forces of plutonic action, the same question has had a lively interest for mining engineers and geologists, as is well shown by the discussions of the subject in our Transactions. The important part taken by volcanic emanations in the origin of pegmatites and quartz-veins, described in my paper, Origin of Pegmatite,1 and their latent power to concentrate into useful deposits such scattered gold as occurs in the Hartsel granite, make a discussion of their derivation but a natural third and final step. It is conceded that enormous amounts of vapor accompany volcanism, though perhaps we are apt to forget that steam has 1,700 times the volume of water, besides which the column seen over Vesuvius and other volcanoes is greatly mixed with air; the immensity of such volumes compared with solids and liquids is shown by the experiment of Gautier, who, by heating dessicated granite to 100° C., evolved from it uses 20 times, and steam 90 times, its own volume. Dana appraised the average amount of water left in ordinary rocks as 2.5 per cent. T. M. Read estimated that the Mississippi river carries to the sea annually 150,000,000 tons of rock material. If these Mississippi sediments, as deposited, contained 20 per cent. of water, it would be 600,000,000 cu. ft., or 4,500,000,000 American gallons, annually. Allowing the vapor suspended over a volcanic cone to be mixed with 80 per cent. of air, this amount of water converted into steam would replenish anew, every 9 min., a column 15,000 ft. high, 2,000 ft. in diameter at the base, and 10,000 ft. at the top. Read's estimate is only half of the amount given in a more recent and probably correct one .2

Jan 5, 1908

By The Staff of Dames & Moore

Five factors are required for the formation of uranium deposits: a source, transporting medium, host, trap, and preservation. Locating and evaluating uranium deposits requires ail integration of methods and techniques to determine if the above factors are present. A typical exploration program consists of selection of a favorable area, field reconnaissance, land acquisition, and target definition and evaluation. Target definition and evaluation utilizes a combination of geologic mapping, geochemical surveying, geophysical surveying, and drilling and logging. Each overlaps the others to some degree.

Jan 10, 1978

By H. C., Weed

THE Inspiration Consolidated Copper Co., located in the Globe-Miami district at Inspiration, Ariz., became a producer of copper in 1915. From 1915 until 1948, 116,278,000 tons of ore were produced from underground workings by the block-caving system of mining. In April 1948, open-pit ore production from portions of the ore body was started and earlier plans for block-caving in these areas were abandoned. The change was due to economic conditions. Prior to the war years Inspiration's costs of mining by block-caving methods were comparable to, or even below, the costs of some open-pit operations. By the end of the war these conditions were completely changed. Underground costs had risen steadily for labor and supplies. Difficulty was being experienced in finding competent underground men and underground development was almost hopelessly behind schedule. On the other hand, open-pit costs had been sharply reduced through the development of modern earth-moving machinery and plenty of labor was available for surface work.

Jan 1, 1950

By Gustav Egloff

AN unexpected and unprecedented demand for its products now challenges the petroleum industry. Between 1939 wand 1946, domestic oil demand increased nearly 45 per cent and in the first half of 1947 it was 10 per cent higher than in 1946. In 1939 the United States produced 1,264,962. 000 bbl of crude oil and indications are that about 1,860,000,000 bbl will be produced in 1947, a 47 per cent increase. Runs to stills are more than keeping pace with production. The crude capacity of 365 operating refineries is rated as 5,400.000 bbl daily and almost 100 per cent of this capacity was running crude oil in August 1947. The oil industry is cognizant of our need for a greater volume of petroleum products and is expending the huge stun of four billion dollars on exploration. production. transportation, refining. and marketing of petroleum. Of this amount about half will be spent on exploration and production. a billion on refining. and another billion on transportation and marketing facilities.

Jan 1, 1947

THE hall of the Western Iron and Nail Associations having kindly been placed at the service of the Institute, the opening session was held at 3 o'clock, Tuesday afternoon, May 13th, with an attendance of about one hundred and twenty-five members. Mr. William Metcalf, of Pittsburgh, read an address of welcome on behalf of the Local Committee of Arrangements, to which President E. B. Coxe responded. The following papers were then read and discussed : Regenerative Stoves; a Sketch of their History and Notes on their Use, by John M. Hartman, of Philadelphia. Some Curious Phenomena Observed on Making a Test of a Piece of Bessemer Steel, by William Kent, of Pittsburgh. On the Use of Determining Slag Densities in Smelting, by Thomas Macfarlane, of Wyandotte, Michigan. After the reading of these papers each member was presented by the Local Committee with a schedule of excursions, a specially prepared map of Pittsburgh and surroundings, and a directory of industrial works, all tastefully bound, and also with a metal badge bearing the seal of the Institute, to be worn on the excursions. The second session was held on Tuesday evening. The following persons, duly proposed for members and associates of the Institute, were, on the recommendation of the Council, unan¬imously elected. (In this list are included those elected at the final session on Friday morning.) George Bartol, - Cleveland, Ohio. Luther S. Bent, - Steelton, Dauphin Co., Pa. Octave Chanute, - New York City. Albert H. Childs, - Allegheny, Pa. Theodore Cooper, - New York City. Andrew Cosgriff, - Brewster, Putnam Co., N. Y. William B. Crocker, - New York City. Henry M. Curry, - Pittsburgh, Pa. Charles Davis, - Allegheny, Pa. Henry F. De Bardeleben, - Birmingham, Ala. Herbert Du Puy, - Pittsburgh, Pa. Charles L. Fitzhugh, - Pittsburgh, Pa. W. S. Franklin, - Ashland, Md. F. G. Fricke, - Pittsburgh, Pa. Paul A. Fusz, - St. Louis, Mo. Ignatius Hahn, . Pittsburgh, Pa. Henry Hargreaves, - South Pittsburgh, Tenn.

Jan 1, 1880

By William Campbell

(Cleveland Meeting, October, 1912.) THE structure of iron and steel, though the object of so much study and research for the past 25 years, is by no means thoroughly understood. In the first place, we have three or more distinct iron-carbon thermal diagrams, each with its own supporters, and each representing a theory of the structure and constitution of cast-iron. In the second place, by reason of the fact that austenite, the solid solution of carbon in iron, decomposes in the solid state into ferrite, or pure iron, and cementite (Fe3C), and that quenching from above this transition-range, no matter how rapid, cannot entirely prevent the change and thus preserve the austenite by itself at ordinary temperatures, it happens that under the microscope we find, in addition to the ferrite, Fe3C, and austenite, which the thermal diagram of steel requires, it series of transition-products with distinctive structures, to which have ,been given the names martensite, troostite, sorbite, etc. Now these transition-products, in addition to the solid solution, austenite, have been the source of much controversy, at times very bitter. One side would insist that, say, troostite was an entity, which the other side would deny, pointing out that it must be a transition-mixture, with a particular structure. That austenite was a solid solution of carbon in iron has been denied by one school ; we have been told that Fe24C dissolved both Fe3C and Fe, and thus gave rise to a whole series of quenching-products-all this in spite of the fact that no matter how the thermal diagrams differ in regard to cast-iron, they all agree in regard to the solid solution, austenite, for Fe24C finds no place on the diagram. Thus it happens that while the authorities fight both in regard to the iron-carbon diagram and the structures met with in hard- * Associate Professor of Metallurgy, Columbia University in the City of New York.

Dec 1, 1912

By H. E. Montgomery

Engineering trends for some years have been toward higher temperatures, both in process work and in steam generation. Progress in design has been dependent upon the development and evaluation of suitable alloys. Elementary knowledge of the limitations of copper-base alloys indicate their unsuitability for the higher ranges of operating temperatures; say, for steam to 950°F. Emphasis upon the more severe conditions perhaps is a reason why more complete evaluations have not been made for copper-base alloys over their range of suitability. However, the few studies made show clearly the need for more accurate evaluations. Some copper-base alloys long looked upon favorably because of superior room-temperature properties are not as desirable as some others perhaps not so "strong" and "hard," as measured by usual acceptance tests. Load-carrying capacity and structural stability arc two important factors. Structural stability as influenced by temperature, by presence of corrosive media, or by the effects of stress itself, frequently is a limiting factor. An early reference to creep properties of the cast copper-base alloys is that of Brown1 (Admiralty gun metal, Cu 87.5, Sn 10.1, Zn 2.3 and Pb 0.08). His tests were similar to present-day stress-rupture tests without measurement of creep elongrttion. Loading was in steps with usually 24 hr. between steps, and continued until failure. He advocated a "useful strength value" of 61/2 tons (I4,560 Ib.) per sq. in. at 572°F. (300°C.). A specimen broken in 1/2 hr. at 572°F. had a strength of 21 tons (26,880 Ib.) per sq. in. The strength values as determined by 1/2-hr. tests and those by the longer stress-rupturc start to differentiate at 392°F. (200°C). This is the temperature at which time at load began to play an important part. Bolton, Price and Hebemann2 give creep curves on 88-10-2 (A.S.T.M. B-60, CU 88, Sn 10, Zn 2) and steam or valve bronze (A.S.T.M. B-6I, Cu 87.50, Sn 6.00, Zn 3.75, Pb 1.70) at 500°F. Direct comparison of the two alloys under 7500 lb. per sq. in. stress showed the steam bronze (A.S.T.M. B-61) superior in creep strength to the 88-10-2 (A.S.T.M. B-60). The steam bronze shows no creep after 700 hr. (1540-hr. test). The 88-10-2 shows a rate of about 7.0 per cent in 100,000 hr. over the last 700 hr. of the test. Creep curves on the steam bronze are also given at the same temperature (500°F.) with loads of 6500 lb. per sq. in. and 8000 lb. per sq. in. These indicate "creep strengths" (creep rate within I per cent in 100,000 hr.) in excess of 8000 lb. per sq, in. for this alloy. It was found that higher percentages of tin are detrimental to creep resistance. This is caused by the presence of or formation during test of considerable alpha-delta eutectoid in the higher tin alloys. Bolton also states that the high

Jan 1, 1945

By P. B. Knuckey, D. Littleford

The Kalengwa mine, situated in a remote area of Zambia in Central Africa, has presented some unique problems to the planners engaged in developing the deposit. This small, high grade copper deposit contains some 1,688,000 tons of ore at a grade of 9.3% contained copper. Of this 362,000 tons is classified as high grade ore at 27.2% Cu, the coarse fraction of which can be fed directly to converters; 733,000 is classed as intermediate grade ore averaging 6.3% Cu, and 593,000 tons classed as low grade ore containing 2.1% Cu. The geology of the deposit and the establishment of the mining operation is fully described. A concentrator is being built at Kalengwa to treat the high grade fine product, intermediate, and low grade ore, whilst the coarse high grade ore will be trucked to the Copperbelt smelters for direct smelting. Details of metallurgical processing are given. The decision to truck the coarse high grade ore to the smelters on the Copperbelt necessitated the construction of a new 200-mile road, the setting up of a fleet of heavy ore transport trucks and associated equipment. The remoteness of the area from established communication facilities on the Copperbelt necessitated the provision of radio communications between Kalengwa and the head office at Kalulushi, and the establishment of a regular mine air service. The paper also describes the training of an unsophisticated local population in the operation of heavy plant and machinery, the establishment of the township, and the provision of health services.

Jan 1, 1972

By S. A. TAYLOR

AN EDITORIAL on the Strike Situation in the Coal mining industry in the New York Evening Post of Nov. 4, 1919, gave what purported to be statistics of the Department of Labor, for a period of two weeks, which showed an average for the year, based on these two weeks, of 32% hours per week. This mode of arriving at the number of hours per week, while not accurate, is not so far off from the facts as to call for any special comment. The report of the U. S. Geological Survey, Department of Coal Statistics, give so the number of days worked in 1917 as 243; reducing the same to hours per week, assuming 8 hours per day, shows a weekly operation of mines at an average of 36J4 hours. But this assumption is not exactly correct, for the reason that it is not very often that the miners work the full 8 hours per day. There are many explanations for this, but it is not pertinent to this statement to discuss them now, as the important thing to consider is whether a 30-hour week would be for the best interest of not only the men themselves, but the public or country in general.

Jan 1, 1920

By Gail F. Moulton

The production of petroleum in Illinois in 1928 was approximately 6,500,000 bbl., a decline of about 500,000 bbl. from the previous year and of about 1,500,000 bbl. from 1924. Production increased about 200,000 bbl. in Indiana to slightly less than 1,000,000 bbl. Production for 1929 is estimated at approximately 6,000,000 bbl. for Illinois and 1,000,000 bbl. for Indiana. Illinois Because production from most of the wells in the state has declined to a small daily average and the low prices for crude oil discouraged wildcatting, the number of wells drilled fell below that for any previous year since the development of commercially important production in the state. The Ohio Oil Co. discovered a pool of apparent commercial importance in southwestern Illinois near Dupo, in St. Clair County, and favorable showings of oil were encountered in a well in southeastern Illinois, near Harrisburg in Saline County. New production from the Dupo area is expected to check the rate of decline for the state. Thc following tablel summarizes field developments for 1927 and 1928 (for important detail by counties see notes at foot of table): 1027 1928 Completions........................................... 162 145a Initial production, bbl.................................. 2244 1840b Dry holes........................................,.... 66 58" Gas well completions................................... 13 8d 0111 wells abandoned.................................... 45" a Crawford, 44; Lawrence, 28; Wabash, 40. b Crawford, 501; Lawrence, 403; St. Clair, 165 (4 completions); Wahash, 668. o Crawford, 12; Wabash, 19. d Crawford, 6. b Lawrence, 21; Wabash, 15. The discovery well in the Dupo field in St. Clair County, produced about 150 bbl. per day from the Trenton lime at 660 ft. It is located in a northern extension of the Columbia-Waterloo anticline on which the Waterloo pool was developed in 1921. The best information on the.

Jan 1, 1929