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By Italo Onederra, Gary Cavanough, Ewan Sellers

Reactivity of ammonium nitrate based explosives is associated with the presence of iron sulfides in the ground reacting with explosive products and in some instances causing spontaneous reactions which can lead to detonation. The stability of explosive products can also be linked to in-hole density, which influences detonation efficiency, breakage performance and the potential generation of Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) fumes. Reactive ground testing involves detecting a temperature rise of a mixture of a bulk explosive product sample, a ground rock sample and some specific chemical agents. This paper describes improvements in reactive ground testing involving the use of time lapse video analysis and detection of NOX gas emissions from the sample. Reactivity is stored and linked to a using cloud based software to map of the mine showing the exact location of the sample. The location marker can be selected to allow quick access to the sample test results and video. In addition to reactivity, the stability and detonation performance of bulk product can also be influenced by depth. In this paper, a system that simulates product at depth and measures density changes and monitors the structure of bulk samples is described. Results from an explosive product are analyzed and detonation performance is assessed by the measurement of velocity of detonation and detonation pressure.

Jan 1, 2018

By Charles L. Greening

MARTIN MARIETTA CEMENT at Martinsburg, West Virginia, has been and presently is engaged in coupling present open pit with old underground workings. Various drilling and blasting techniques have been introduced in an endeavor to achieve optimum results. This paper will relate to three roof shots at Martinsburg, one of which realized a controlled blast of 248,000 tons of material.

Jan 1, 1982

By Dave I. McGregor

The Multiple Raise Round Blasting Technique (MRRBT) is a safe, efficient, cost effective method of blasting thee will use existing mine personnel. The MRRBT, developed from the conventional 'drop raise method' style of blasting, can be used for most raise mining applications. Current results using MRRBT indicate no upper limit for the maximum length that a raise can be blasted.

Jan 1, 1994

By Ettore Contestabile, Cameron Thomas

Implosive-type electrical/mechanical connectors such as XECONEX have been used extensively for joining electrical transmission lines. This implosive action of explosives has also been applied to other forms of high energy metal working with excellent results. However, as with many other products, the inherent blast energy of these units has caused some environmental concerns especially when used in proximity to inhabited areas.

Jan 1, 1995

By Max Pena Woolcott, Winfried Rosenstock, Maria Chappuis, Walther Hennig

"In a Peruvian-German Technical Cooperation project for the Mining Sector the ""Milpo-cut"" along with the electric initiation system has been successfully implemented in a Peruvian metal-ore mine.Specific savings in drill work and explosives consumption up to 50 % have been achieved in headings and slopes. The positive results have motivated further Peruvian mining companies to introduce the new technique."

Jan 1, 1994

By Donald F. Rapp

Improvements in non-electric initiation systems have given the blasting industry more choices than ever in controlling blast results. By incorporating blasting requirements and system attributes, timing patterns are only limited by the creativity of the shot designer. This paper will discuss the basic groups of non-electric initiation systems, their attributes, and how to select the optimum system for the job.

Jan 1, 1991

By Chen Aiping, Wei Banyun, Chen Canchang

"The gaseous explosives consisting of combustible gas and combustion-supporting gas wereused in the opening end of a steel pipe and the ignition was in the closed end of the pipeusing continuous air feed within the permissible length limit of industrial equipment, theexperimental results show the mechanisms of forced transition from combustion todetonation and what is the effective equipment for the transition."

Jan 1, 1993

By C H. Ryu

This paper presents a simplified two-dimensional numerical model of block fragmentation in a Jointed rock mass during the late or throw stage of a blast after wave effects have subsided. The model is based on the distinct element method. Examples illustrate the approach and allow for a comparison of effects of Joint patterns on fragmentation and resulting block motion.

Jan 1, 1986

By Ettore Contestabile, Cameron Thomas

Implosive-type electrical/mechanical connectors such as XECONEX have been used extensively for joining electrical transmission lines. This implosive action of explosives has also been applied to other forms of high energy metal working with excellent results. However, as with many other products, the inherent blast energy of these units has caused some environmental concerns especially when used in proximity to inhabited areas.

Jan 1, 1995

By Timothy Stark

At present blasters are strictly liable under tort law for personal injury and property damage caused by ground vibrations and/or air overpressures. The application of strict tort liability to vibration and air overpressure damage has resulted in litigation that has hampered and probably will continue to hamper the blasting industry. There are many case histories in which blasters have been sued for the appearance of cosmetic cracking, some of which have involved frivolous claims and marginal expert testimony (Oriard 1999). This litigation has resulted in additional costs to the blasting and construction industries and the American public because there are usually many plaintiffs involved and each case is usually adjudicated separately instead of under a class-action format. It is proposed herein that blasters not be held liable for vibration or air overpressure damages unless their conduct is proven to be negligent. A number of reasons are presented for raising the legal standard from strict liability to negligence including: (1) improvements in blasting technology that allow blasting to be conducted without substantial risk of damage and if damage does occur it is likely to be cosmetic, (2) establishment of conservative ground vibration and air overpressure damage limits for typical structures, and (3) established industry standards for construction blasting.

Jan 1, 2002

By E. Contestabile, B von Roser

Schedule IV containers in Canada and IME- containers in the United States have made possible the transport of mixed loads. That is, using these containers for detonators, one can simultaneously transport detonators and explosives on the same vehicle. As a result of a recent accident, the Canadian Chief Inspector of Explosives asked for a review of the appropriateness of the Schedule IV container in its present use. The Canadian Authority asked for a re-assessment of the adequacy of the Schedule IV container in preventing propagation of a reaction from the detonators in the container to the remainder of the explosives on the truck, and its ability to contain fragments generated by the detonators. A series of tests was performed to determine the initiation threshold temperature for non-electric detonators and the failure threshold temperature for the shock tube to establish some guidelines for preventing communication from one case of detonators to another within the transport container at elevated temperature. Tests fell into the following categories: inter-case sympathetic detonation, detonator thermal auto-initiation, shock tube thermal sensitivity, and intra-case sympathetic detonation. The results indicate that temperature is a critical factor, which determines to what extent, if any, communication occurs.

Jan 1, 2002

By Krishna Nand

For assessing the safety of structures during underground explosions, ground particle velocity gives the best damage criteria, and 100 mm/see of ground particle velocity has been internationally accepted as the threshold value of safety (no damage). Results of extensive controlled underground explosion experiments conducted by the author to study the effects of ground vibrations on specially prepared concrete blocks, and also on low rise buildings and dams showed that no damage normally occurred when ground particle velocities were less than 100 mm/sec. Analysis of a large number of accelerograms from a dam site in India also indicated that no damage occurred to normal structures when integrated ground particle velocities were less than 100 mm/sec. Major damage in well built structures like a dam was noticed for ground particle velocity as high as about 350 mm/sec. These results are also generally substantiated from damage data obtained for various structures during other earthquakes, including Elcentro (1940), Taft (1952), Parkfield (1965), and San Fernando (1971). These studies, therefore, suggest that the damage criteria during underground explosions and earthquakes are similar; and 100 mm/see of ground particle velocity seems to be the general threshold value of safety (no damage) against ground vibrations.

Jan 1, 1988

By Sharon K. Reamer, Klaus G. Hinzen, Brian W. Stump

"This study investigates seismic wave propagation from two production shots in a limestone quarry. Our motivation is to investigate the efficiency of two superpositioning techniques. The production shots consisted of an 18 and 20 hole explosive array detonated in a single row with constant delay times of 32 and 20 ms, respectively. A single shot was fired on a neighboring part of the quarry bench. The experiments were instrumented with 20 three component seismometers (35-120 m range). The computer-controlled electronic firing system resulted in firing time deviations of less than 1.4% of desired fired times. Linear superpositioning with the observed single shot data produces seismograms which adequately reproduce temporal effects of the multiple explosions; however, spatial effects due to the extended source length (68-76 m) are not modeled with this method. Linear superpositioning with individual half-space Green's functions for each explosion in thearray convolved with a calculated Mueller-Murphy source produces seismograms which match the time duration of the observed production shot seismograms and differ in absolute peak amplitude by less than a factor of three. Parameter estimation for the source is taken from chemical explosion study results. The single source model differs in amplitude from the observed single source seismograms by a factor of 2.3."

Jan 1, 1991

By B Mohanty

Several parameters such as, Energy, Strength, Brisance, Impulse, and Bubble Energy, are in common use in the explosives industry today to rate commercial explosives in terms of blasting performance. However, this multiplicity of terms, their frequent interchange and their purported one-to-one correlation with expected performance have given rise to a considerable amount of confusion, and have often resulted in unrealistic rating of explosives. In this paper, various theoretical and experimental methods of estimating energy and performance of explosives are discussed and their relative merits examined. These methods include, Computer Code Calculations, Cylinder Test, Trauzl Test, Ballistic Mortar Test, Underwater Test and Model-scale blasting. It is shown, in the light of actual blasting process, that such measures cannot be considered accurate indicators of expected blasting performance as the properties of rock to be blasted are either totally ignored or only partially accounted for in these methods. It is also shown that no single technique alone among those currently employed by the explosives industry can lead to realistic rating of explosives in terms of expected blast results. The need for the adoption of a two-tier rating system, one based on chemical potential "energy", and the other based on blasting "performance" is proposed, and specific approaches to achieve this objective are outlined.

Jan 1, 1981

By Antonio S. Aldana Selders

With special designed explosive and a system to lower down a heavy load of Explosives through 8" pipe results are achieved, the stimulation of sulphur production takes place. Well # 18-1063 at 515 meters below ground is loaded with 802 units of explosives with total weight of 1820 kilos to fill up the column of 93 meters of limestone & sulphur strata.

Jan 1, 1995

By Kirk Yeager

All explosive formulations display some sensitivity to heat. A common technique utilized to measure an explosive’s response to thermal stimulation is differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). As DSC analysis is run on quantities of material easily handled in a laboratory setting, and is relatively inexpensive, it tends to be one of the more predominant tools utilized to determine potential thermal hazards of energetic materials. The analysis of energetic materials via DSC provides unique challenges, as both large energy outputs and significant production of gaseous products result from their decompositions. In addition, the unique thermal decomposition characteristics of ammonium nitrate (AN) based materials have also created difficulties in DSC analyses. A wide variety of techniques have been developed to study the decomposition of explosives. Traditionally, sealed glass capillaries were utilized to house samples. Recently, the introduction of specialty cells designed to withstand high pressures has enabled new sampling techniques to be developed. Analyses of explosives with both traditional and “high-pressure” cells will be compared and contrasted. Lessons learned about the application of both techniques towards analyzing thermal hazards such as incompatibilities will be presented. Inconsistencies in the results displayed during analyses of AN-based explosives will be highlighted. Recommendations on the best approach for analyzing the more problematic AN formulations will be given.

Jan 1, 2000

By Michael Wieland

The thermodynamics work-principle was used to develop the rupture-fracture-throw (RFT) model for ranking the performance of reduced-density explosives when shot in rock or other stratum. The RFT model revises techniques used for the rock-water-jelly (RWJ) model, where the reaction-zone remains trapped within the rock/stratum. Therein, ranking of performance refers to trends for the two resolved components of the total expansion work: the reversible mechanical work taken as the heave and the residual irreversible portion, taken as the undissipated shock. For numeric tractability, the RFT and RWJ thermodynamic efficiency were taken equal, while the RWJ late-stage confinement was replaced with restrained venting through the rock, to render the RFT inefficient heave. The transfer of heat from the reaction-zone was neglected and the root-power formula was used to render the gas-covolume. Ranking trends were found for a generic charge formulation over a wide ranging density, with underwater results noted for comparison. Realistic compositions, some with natural resource materials, were treated for just typical and reduced density. Rock characteristics, ranging from hard rock to weak stratum, were represented by their density and rupture compression strength. Quantitative test results for shock or heave in rock remain difficult, so qualitative guidelines remain helpful when reviewing the graphic trends. Theoretical refinements for rock fragment size-distribution remain under development, though some relationships are touched upon to gain insight.

Jan 1, 2011

By Per-Anders Persson

TIGERWIN, now on CD, is a user-friendly personal computer code (running under Windows) which determines the detonation and expansion state of an explosive from its known chemical composition. TIGERWIN is intended for users in the mining and commercial explosives industry who do not routinely program or run Fortran codes. The code allows the user to open a window on the computer screen and enter the initial density and the weight percentage composition of an explosive, ingredient by ingredient. Alternatively, the code can balance the composition with one or more ingredient percentages fixed, while proportionally adjusting the others automatically to give a total of 100%. The equation of state and its parameters can be user-selected from several proven and tested versions of the BKW, the JCZ, and the ideal gas equations of state. TIGERWIN allows the user to select several options for different additional calculations, such as determining the constant volume explosion, the Chapman-Jouguet (C-J) point, the detonation Hugoniot, the expansion isentrope from the C-J point, and point calculations with selectable specific volume and temperature. Additional options include calculations of detonation data with one or more ingredients partially reacted, assuming either temperature equilibrium between reaction products and unreacted material, or keeping the unreacted material “cold” at the initial temperature. Thus the code can run both ideal and non-ideal detonation calculations. The code automatically saves the input and output files in a separate directory for future reference. The output from several calculations can be displayed and printed in the form of a comparison table. In it, the key results of up to five calculations with different explosive compositions can be compared. The results from an individual calculation can be displayed graphically and printed with expansion work, pressure, or temperature as functions of specific volume. A complete listing of the details of the calculation results, similar to those from the original Fortran Tiger calculations, can also be displayed and printed. No computer experience is required to run the code and workshop participants are encouraged to bring in their own formulations to try out on TIGERWIN

Jan 1, 2000

By Sushil Bhandari

Presented here is the simplified process of fragmentation of homogeneous rocks by blasting based on experimental studies. Small scale single hole blasting experiments on jointed limestone are described. Results show that directions of joints overshadow the degree of fragmentation and also influence the remaining rock. The possible influence of joints on the process of fragmentation of non-homogeneous rock by blasting is also discussed.

Jan 1, 1983

By D T. Froedge, Michael J. Nutting

A system consisting of an unlimited number of biaxial geophones that measure peak particle velocity and frequency has been developed and utilized at surface mines, quarries and construction sites. An ability to accurately measure ground vibrations completely surrounding a blast and to construct a vibration topograph has facilitated the study of blast design parameters and geologic factors on the resulting generation and propagation of the vibrations.

Jan 1, 1990