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By F. Peer

This Technical Note was presented as a poster at the Western Cape Mineral Processing Symposium held in August 2001 The cleaning of fine coal (-1000 µm) in today?s coal preparation plants is an economically important factor. Coals with high ash contents are, in general, commercially undesirable. Current well-known techniques for treating fine coal include froth flotation and spirals. The primary critical factor with regards to spirals is the efficiency of the process whereas that of flotation, is the cost of there agents used. Research into enhanced gravity separation techniques has resulted in several commercially available enhanced gravity separators. This project was based on a preliminary investigation into the feasibility of one such separator, to effectively treat fine (-500 µm) coal. Experimental variables included particle size and speed of rotation of the said instrument. The performance of the separator was compared to the results obtained from liquid density separations done for the two coal fractions evaluated. From the results obtained in this preliminary study it appears that the piece of equipment investigated does not measure up to expectations. Recommendations for further investigation include the evaluation of the instrument on other South African coals to obtain conclusive results.

Jan 1, 2002

By P. Foster

Over the past decade there has been a great deal of research into the use of virtual reality (VR) and computer graphics in the mining industry. Much of this has led to developed applications including training simulators and accident reconstruction. One other area where there is considerable potential for virtual reality is that of mining ergonomics. This paper identifies those common ergonomic limitations associated with mining equipment that can be effectively modelled using VR techniques. From this, two simple models have been developed, namely (i) remote control continuous miner operation and (ii) free steered vehicle sight-lines, which demonstrate the practical use of VR in this area.

Jan 1, 2004

The safety of mining operations is significantly influenced by the in situ stress fields in which the mining excavations are created. From the point of view of planning of mining operations, the in situ stress field is a most important input parameter for valid modelling of excavations. Many in situ stress measurements have been carried out for mining and civil engineering projects in southern Africa over the past 30 to 40 years. A database of in situ stress measurement results and observations has been compiled. This paper presents results extracted from the database which are considered to be of particular interest to mining areas in South Africa. The database will permit the estimation of likely stress conditions in new areas of mining, provide a basis for evaluation of results from future in situ stress measurement programmes, provide a basis for comparison of observed behaviour with expected behaviour, and provide a source of data on which realistic design and layout analyses can be based. The information contained in the database indicates that horizontal to vertical stress ratios in the Carletonville, Klerksdorp and Rustenburg areas are significantly higher than the value of 0,5which is commonly used in mine layout planning.

Jan 1, 1998

By J. A. Bakken, T. Magnusson, G. Sævarsdottir

This paper describes measurements of current and voltage done on submerged arc furnaces. The aim is to focus on and attempt to separate from one another the electric arc current and the current bypassing the arc through the charge. Toward this goal two measurement campaigns on AC-arcs burning on coke beds are ac-counted for. The first was done on a 150 kVA pilot furnace at SINTEF in Trondheim Norway, and the second one was done on a 48 MVA industrial furnace run by Icelandic Alloys in Iceland. The measurements were compared to simulations employing an advanced MFD arc model. The main results are that a coke bed does not necessarily behave as a linear conductor. However the warmer chemically transformed part of an operating Si-metal or FeSi furnace probably exhibits linear behaviour and passes a considerable fraction of the phase current, perhaps on some operating conditions, as much as 50%.

Jan 1, 2007

By M. Shahabi, M. Kashfi

This paper briefly describes the excavation procedure of a powerhouse, comprising of its incremental excavation, reinforcement measures, and the installed monitoring system. During the first phase of excavation, the data obtained from monitoring of the behavior of Mudstone layers were used to recommend extra support measures. These data are also used to design the support of the powerhouse during its extension phase. In diesen bericht wird die bohrmcthode von kraftwerk ecavation in stupenweise dargestelt, und in die richtung d.sicherung, Mit hilfe von monitoring systeme. Die monitoring in (mudstone) schichten ist an schutz in bohrung entworfen und montiert in diese methode in K.W. fase 1 schutzung das K.W. in erweiterung der K.W. das berte auserwelt worden ist Cet article décrit brièvement le procédé d'excavation d'une centrale électrique, comportant de son excavation incrémental, de mesures de renfort, et du système de surveillance installé. Pendant la première phase de l'excavation, les données obtenues à partir de la surveillance du comportement des couches de schiste ont été utilisées pour recommander des mesures supplémentaires de soutien. Ces données sont également utilisées pour la conception de la soutènement de la centrale électrique pendant sa phase d’extension.

Jan 1, 2003

Lonmin, earlier than any other primary platinum producer, had to deal with the concentrating and smelting of UG2-rich ores and concentrates respectively. Smelting was performed at a fairly modest scale compared to the company's industry peers in the platinum group metals (PGMs) industry, and was focused on smelting concentrates obtained through low mass pulls while still maintaining high recoveries at its concentrators. Lonmin gradually smelted larger quantities of UG2 concentrates. Initially two 2.3 MW Infurnco furnaces were commissioned in 1982, followed by three 5 MW circular 3-electrode Pyromet furnaces in 1991. Deep electrode immersions and moderately high hearth power densities were used in all the designs. Lonmin decided to continue with circular furnace technology when it planned its new high-intensity No. 1 Furnace. Neither Lonmin nor the technology supplier and EPCM company foresaw the challenges that scale-up would bring when applied to the smelting of UG2-rich concentrate blends. Superimposed on the high chromite content, was the low base-metal loading, mineralogical difficulties, and fine particle size that resulted from milling of all concentrates (especially UG2 and recycle materials within the smelter). Through a process of fundamental diagnoses of furnace run-outs and wear patterns observed during repairs, the main challenges operating this high-intensity furnace were identified as sulphur vapour corrosion of the copper coolers, uneven and unpredicted movements of refractory bricks with associated copper cooler lift and matte tapblock movement, the formation of three-phase 'mushy' zones, high refractory and taphole wear rates, uncertainty in matte level and associated insufficient matte buffer height, and high furnace operating temperatures. These factors seldom worked in isolation and will be explored in more detail in the paper. The variability in furnace feed characteristics led Lonmin to redesign Furnace No. 1, to invest in backup furnace capacity, and to invest in improved monitoring and control. These improvements consisted of online and high-frequency off-line monitoring of feed chemistry and mineralogy, online pressure monitoring of water-cooled circuits, an alternative matte liquid level measurement in the furnace, and electrode immersion estimation. Improvements were also made at the converters by installing and utilizing optical spectral analysis of the converter flame to characterize converter behaviour and achieve the desired iron end-point for white matte. This paper also briefly discusses the current and future expansion plans, as well as ancillary operations at the smelter such as flue-gas handling and materials handling.

Jan 1, 2011

By A. v. E. Conradie, I. Nieuwoudt

Comminution and flotation circuits are frequently perturbed by disturbances, such as feed particle size variations, ore hardness and varying mineral liberation, which can have a significant impact on the recoveries and grades. Although advanced control strategies can neutralize many of these disturbances, few such systems have been implemented at present. One reason is that it is only recently that the requisite sensor systems have been developed and used to control froth flotation systems. Another is owed to the complexity of these non-linear interactive systems. In this paper, a plant-wide control strategy is considered, wherein both unit operations have a single overall control objective. The automated design of the controller is based on an advanced evolutionary algorithm viz., Symbiotic, Memetic Neuro-Evolution (SMNE), for developing neural network controllers in a reinforcement learning framework. A rigorous phenomenological comminution and flotation model was used to develop suitable neurocontrollers, which used all possible sensor inputs and available manipulated variables. The neurocontroller managed to identify optimal or near-optimal operating conditions consistently and showed robust performance in the presence of significant disturbances. The results suggest that evolutionary reinforcement learning offers a very competitive approach towards the development of integrated non-linear controllers for mineral processing plants. Keywords: neural networks, control, flotation, comminution, evolutionary reinforcement learning

Jan 1, 2003

By E. R. Davis, R. J. Knott

The paper discusses some of the tools of management in the field of project control, especially in engineering. Project control includes planning and cost engineering, and involves various phases: the conceptual Design and Planning Phase, the Definitive Design and Capital Budgeting Phase, and the Implementation Phase. Each of these phases is discussed in in, together with the use that can be made of data banks, progress reports, and computer systems.

Jan 1, 1982

By T. Güyagüler, A. Güngör

Labour protection, that is prevention of occupational disease and reduction in the frequency of accident, has always been a matter of major concern of mining industry. Management and the government should promote and maintain high safety standards through some measures to reduce accident frequency and occupational disease. This can be achieved by using the science and technology for improving the working conditions, educating workers and managers about accidents and prevention techniques. The detailed analysis of an accident requires knowledge of many factors such as location, time, type, cost of accident, victim, nature of the injury, personal and environmental factors etc. that can be obtained from the standard coded accident report form. There is a need to prepare safety data in a common format to produce a common safety reporting system and ‘Occupational Health and Safety Management Tool’ is being designed to manage this by using database and Internet technology. Precautions should be taken according to results from database queries by providing comprehensive and accurate national data. To have an accident is unfortunate, however, to have an accident and learn nothing from it is unforgivable. Keywords: Occupational health and safety, Accident report form, Accident database, Occupational diseases and accidents, Safety reporting system.

Jan 1, 2003

By P. N. Vernon

Ausmelt top entry submerged lance technology offers a cost-effective means of carrying out a range of base metal smelting operations with minimum impact on the environment. The system is capable of using a range of fuels depending upon local costs. Due to the intense, localised reaction zone, high energy efficiency is obtained and the physical size of the plant is relatively small compared to that of most competing technologies. Capital cost can thereby be minimised. The furnace is well enclosed, such that fugitive emissions and ingress of diluting air to the gas stream are both minimised. The oxygen potential in the slag can be varied over a wide range such that the system can be applied in both oxidising and reducing duties. Following a general description of the technology, the paper discusses Ausmelt plants already in operation. The application of the technology for the provision of additional smelting capacity, for the improvement of converting operations and for slag cleaning is then described. A brief explanation of how these processes could be applied at southern African smelters is given and the paper closes with an assessment of novel Ausmelt applications for this geographical region, such as zinc recovery from sulphides.

Jan 1, 1997

By A. McKenzie

During the late 1990s Anglo American PLC was evaluating the Gamsberg zinc deposit in the Northern Cape Province. As the primary South African metallurgical technology provider, Mintek became involved in the evaluation of a pyrometallurgical process for the recovery of zinc from the Gamsberg deposit. eloping DC arc furnace technology for the metallurgical industry. This includes the patented Enviroplas® process for the treatment of zinc bearing waste materials. As a consequence Mintek has developed extensive expertise in the pyrometallurgical processing of zinc bearing materials. However, Mintek?s technologies stopped with the production of Prime Western Grade (PWG) zinc. Early on in the evaluation of the Gamsberg project, it became evident that the refining of PWG zinc would play an important part in the economic viability of the project. At the time the only pyrometallurgical technology available for the refining of PWG zinc to Special High Grade (SHG) zinc was the New Jersey process. This process represents 50-year-old technology and has not undergone significant refinement since the technology was developed. In order to provide a complete pyrometallurgical flow sheet for possible implementation at Gamsberg, Mintek assessed the New Jersey process with a view to either improving the technology or developing a new technology appropriate to the 21 century. In 1998 Mintek convened a consortium consisting of Mintek, the University of Cape Town, Eskom Enterprises, Bateman Metals and Anglo American PLC. The consortium successfully applied to the Innovation Fund for funding to develop a new process for the pyrometallurgical refining of PWG zinc to SHG zinc. The main aims of the project were to develop a new technology for pyrometallurgical zinc refining that conformed to the following: ?Decrease the production cost of SHG zinc metal to stimulate the development of the Gamsberg deposit. ?Be compatible with the current Enviroplas® process, preferably as an add-on to that process. ?Should use electrical energy to benefit from local price tariffs. The project commenced at the beginning of 2000 and consisted of three phases: ?an initial technology search and assessment of the fundamental aspects of zinc distillation. ?the design of a pilot plant for zinc refining. ?the manufacture, commissioning and operation of the pilot plant. A new technology based on a DC arc boiler feeding a packed distillation column was developed and during 2003 the project culminated in the successful operation of a 200 kg/h pilot plant. Ultimately, all of the aims of the project were met and the main outcome is that an advanced process for the pyrometallurgical refining of zinc (the Zincref process) has been developed. The main innovation of the technology was the switch from an energy transfer limited process to a mass transfer limited process (for which a patent has been registered).

Jan 1, 2004

In today?s high tech world, systems are getting bigger, faster, better. To remain at the leading edge, in any business, depends on accurate but flexible design thereby allowing operational managers to provide alternatives to improve their operations. The ultimate goal is to deliver to plan, with optimum economics. Mining is no different, with falling prices and escalating costs, improved margins become the focal objective. There are many ways to achieve this, ranging from operational efficiency improvements through production scenarios to planning initiatives. Of all, planning usually receives the least attention, yet it is the area of most influence on the NPV of the reserve. With computer technology, numerous concepts and iterations are possible thereby closing the gap between optimal and actual design. This paper discusses the application of the split shell design at the De Beers Venetia open pit in South Africa.

Jan 1, 2001

By M. Ayhan

Drums of a modern longwall shearer are manufactured to include various constructional features conveying extracted material onto the face conveyor as efficiently as possible. Designing a drum with a conical shell or with reduced vane length, consequently with a stepper vane angle, is the most widely employed method in an attempt to increase loading efficiency. This study compares loading performances of two such drums, one having a conical shell with modified loading vanes, the other with a cylindrical shell with reduced vane length. Firstly, the loading performances of drums are predicted and the maximum haulage rate attainable with the drums are calculated. Then the performances of drum are compared by long-term comprehensive underground trials with coal shearers under similar conditions during the production operation of Park Termik Cayirhan coalmine in Turkey. Although higher loading performance is predicted for cylindrical drums, the in situ trials point out that Globoid drums have a slightly higher loading performance than cylindrical drums. Furthermore, the relationship between operational variables, i.e. extraction height, sumping depth, haulage rate and in situ loading performance, were investigated statistically on the basis of data gathered during the underground trials. Keywords: longwall mining, shearer drums, loading performance.

Jan 1, 2006

By F. H. Cornet, D. Ask, O. Stephansson

We have conducted a stress analysis of overcoring stress measurements undertaken at the Zedex Test Site (ZTS) in the Äspö HRL, Sweden. Two different types of overcoring cells have been used at the site: the 9-gauge Borre Probe (CSIR-type) and the 12-gauge CSIRO HI cell. Inversion programs based on the least-squares criterion were developed and calibrated. The primary and secondary stress field in the ZTS were back-calculated using strain data from individual cells as well as from combining data from both cells. We propose that the combination of strain data from the two cells significantly improves the determination of the stress field. A striking result is the good agreement between the re-analysed overcoring data and the existing hydraulic fracturing data. The deviations for the horizontal stresses between the re-analyzed overcoring data and the existing hydraulic fracturing data are approximately 3 MPa. The deviation in the orientation of maximum horizontal stress is approximately 10-20°. Nous avons analysé les résultats de mesures de contrainte par surcarottage réalisées sur le site Zedex, du laboratoire souterrain HRL d’Aspö, en suède. Deux types de cellule de mesure ont été utilisés sur ce site : la cellule à 9 jauges (du type CSIR) et la cellule à 12 jauges (du type CSIRO HI). Un programme d’inversion mettant en œuvre une norme par moindres carrés a été développé et validé. Les champs de contrainte primaires et secondaires du site Zedex ont été évalués d’une part en considérant chaque mesure isolément, d’autre part en intégrant l’ensemble des données de déformation dans une inversion unique. Nos résultats suggèrent que l‘association des diverses mesures dans une intégration unique améliore nettement la détermination du champ de contrainte. Un résultat intéressant est le bon accord entre ces nouveaux résultats et les résultats des mesures par fracturation hydraulique. Les écarts sur l’amplitude des contraintes horizontales est de l’ordre de 3 Mpa, les écarts sur les orientations de l’ordre de 10-20°. Auf dem Zedex Test Gelände im Äspö Festgesteinslabor (HRL) wurde eine Spannungsanalyse mittels Overcoring Spannungsmessungen durchgeführt. Hierzu wurden zwei verschiedene Methoden verwendet: das 9-kanal Borre Gerät (CSIR- Ausführung) und die 12-Kanal CSIRO HI Zelle. Inversionsprogramme, die auf dem “least-squares”- Kriterium basieren, wurden entwickelt und kalibriert. Das primäre und sekundäre Spannungsfeld des Zedex Test Geländes wurde sowohl aus Verformungsdaten individueller Zellen als auch aus Kombination beider Zellen ermittelt. Wir nehmen an, daß die Kombination der Messergebnisse beider Geräte die Bestimmung des Spannungsfeldes signifikant verbessert. Überzeugender Beweis hierfür ist die gute Übereinstimmung der überprüften Overcoring Daten und Ergebnisse aus existierenden Hydraulic Fracturing Versuchen. Die Abweichungen der horizontalen Spannungen aus beiden Datensätzen ist etwa 3 MPa und Abweichungen der Orientierung der größten Horizontalspannung liegen bei etwa 10-20°.

Jan 1, 2003

By P. C. -H. Rhee, H. -G. Lee, J. -H. Choi, D. S. Kim, S. -B. Lee

In order to predict the composition of inclusions and to ascertain a method to prevent inclusions from forming in liquid Fe-16 mass Cr alloy, a thermodynamic database was developed through a quantitative determination of thermodynamic relationships of Cr-Al-Si-Mn systems in the liquid Fe alloys. Applications of the databases to the prediction of Mn/Si complex deoxidation with Alin Fe-16 mass Cr alloy were demonstrated in succession. The electromagnetic levitation technique using a cold crucible was employed to separate inclusions from liquid metallic alloys completely and to prevent any contamination from surroundings. Various interaction parameters in the liquid Fe-16 mass per cent Cr alloy system were determined; these are: [eAl(Fe)Cr= 0.19/T, rAl(Fe)O,Cr= -0.01, rAl(Fe)O,Cr= -0.00013, eS1Cr(Fe)= -0.38/T,rSi(Fe)O,Cr= 0.007, rO(Fe)Si,Cr= 0.0044, rA1(Fe)Si,Cr= -0.0075, rSi(Fe)A1,Cr= -0.0078, rSi(Fe)Mn,Cr= 0.005, and rMn(Fe)Si,Cr=0.01.] An improved database, utilizing interaction parameters for molten metal determined in this study, and the Fact Sage slag database of the MnO-SiO2-Al2O3-CrOx-MgO system were used for thermodynamic calculations. These were carried out under various thermodynamic conditions, and results were compared with experimental data of Si/Al, Mn/Si, and Mn/Si/Al deoxidation equilibria. With the abovementioned results, together with experimentally obtained data, thermodynamic conditions were determined, in particular Mn and Si contents, under which liquid inclusions form in liquid Fe-16 mass per cent Cr alloy. The critical Al content in liquid Fe-16 per cent Cr alloy, above which solid inclusion of corundum phase ((Al,Cr)2O3) formed, was as low as 10 ppm. This indicates that extreme care must be taken in controlling the Al content in the metal to avoid formation of solid corundum phase ((Al,Cr)2O3) inclusion. The compositional change prediction of inclusions, which originate from slag entrapment and by Ca addition, was demonstrated by use of the alloy database optimized through this study, and the Fact Sage oxide database. For Si-deoxidized Fe-16 per cent Cr alloy, high Si and low basicity of slag are effective to obtain liquid inclusions. For Al-deoxidized Fe-16 per cent Cr alloy, it is important to keep the Si content lower than 0.1 per cent and it is required to add Ca. Keywords: inclusion, thermodynamic simulation, deoxidation, Fe-16 per cent Cr alloy,stainless steel, interaction parameter, cold crucible

Jan 1, 2004

By J. C. Carrasco, M. Sánchez, R. Jara, F. Marquez, F. Parada, R. Parra, J. Palacios

In past years, Chile has been the largest copper producer in the world and for 2002 mining represented country average of 10 % of the GDP, accounting for 47 % of the total exportation. As copper sulphides are the main mining resources in the country, the metal is produced using the classical processes of flotation and pyrometallurgical extraction. Seven copper smelter plants, which extends from the northern Atacama desert to the central part of the country produced1,522,000 metric tons of fine copper in 2002, approximately one half of total copper concentrate production, with a notorious environmental impact due to the great amount of slag produced during these extraction steps. In this work, a global characterization of copper pyrometallurgical slags produced and disposed of in Chile and worldwide is done, and the concept of total project development is considered to explain the scopes of the study, recovering different compounds and generating new activities around mining. The presentation is completed with the proposal of various methods and techniques being developed today in a joint project between smelter plants and the University of Concepción, with the support of the Chilean government and mining companies, addressed to generate new materials from copper slag. Recovery of copper, molybdenum, precious metals, silica and iron, that is the most abundant component of the slag, are the goals for this research. Metals, commercial compounds, alloys and different forms of iron oxides for steel industry are proposed products.

Jan 1, 2004

By M. K. Pelser

The purpose of this paper is not so much to provide a scientific study of the selection process for the perusal of other psychometrists or industrial psychologists?the purpose is to provide line management with a practical, relatively user-friendly guide to fair and scientific selection. The main areas that are to be covered are: ? Why fair and scientific selection? ? Job analysis ? The job requirement?selection technique circle ? Assessment centres in the mining industry?the Tavistock Collieries Ltd experience. Why fair and scientific selection? Seen from a line manager?s perspective, fair and scientific selection should be pursued for two main reasons: ? to remain within the ambits of the law ? to maximize the probability of selecting the potentially most productive and efficient candidate for the job.

Jan 1, 1997

By D. Bessinger

The present paper provides a brief overview of the thermodynamics of titania rich slags, an outline of the Multi-Phase Equilibrium (MPE) package and its application to ilmenite smelting. Through assessment of published experimental data on various systems containing TiOx, it was found that despite considerable scatter in measured phase equilibria data for the binary Ti2O3-TiO2system,the behaviour of binary and higher order titania rich slags and oxide solid solutions phases could be represented by solution models in the MPE package. Results from the applications of the MPE model on the stability of solid phases and slag-refractory interactions will be presented and discussed. Parallels will be drawn between the predictions by the model and observations made during pilot plant tests. Key words: Thermodynamics, titania slags, ilmenite smelting, phase equilibria, refractory.

Jan 1, 2003

By R. J. Jewell

The storage capacity of any given tailings storage facility (TSF) is a function of the volume available for the tailings, for which the geometry of the final upper surface of the tailings is most important. One of the advantages that can be obtained from thickening tailings prior to discharge is that the tailings can be stacked at a steeper beach angle than is obtainable with conventional low-density slurries. However, there is at present no universally accepted method available for the accurate prediction of tailings beach slopes. This paper examines the current situation with the objective of putting the quest for a method for the accurate prediction of beach slopes into perspective. The paper references published reviews of the best-known beach slope prediction methods. However, there do not appear to be any independently verified projects or published references to projects on which a Class A prediction has been validated for any of these approaches, and in those instances where projects have been implemented correlation of actual with predicted slopes has been poor - often due to differences between the properties of the tailings assumed in the design and those actually achieved in the field. The author also concludes that flume-scale testing cannot be taken as a reliable indicator of full-scale performance, and suggests that the outcome of any current predictive method should be used by experienced practitioners as only one of a range of indicators in order to suggest a range of slope angles likely to result for any given operation. Practice has shown that it is possible to manipulate beach slopes by changes to the disposal technique, such as limiting the rate of discharge per discharge point and by increasing or decreasing yield stress, but the impact of these changes cannot readily be predicted. There are also newly emerging technologies, such as the injection of a polymer into the tailings at discharge, that will enhance the dewatering of tailings and hence expedite the consolidation of the tailings, that could well facilitate the development of steeper beach slopes. The overall conclusion is that with the current state of knowledge, the accurate prediction of beach slopes is not possible. Furthermore, in view of the inherent variability of the tailings parameters from any operation, it may well be of more value to concentrate on developing an understanding of the means by which the tailings parameters may be manipulated by the operators to achieve a given beach slope than to concentrate wholly on developing a generic beach slope prediction model.

Jan 1, 2012

By M. Kahn

This paper traces the rise of South Africa's mining industry in the context of the different state forms that oversaw its development. It commences with the mining-led industrial revolution through four periods of conflict, each of which contributed to a deepening of the industrial base, with constant battles between domestic and foreign capital and labour, and the rise of both Afrikaner and African nationalism. The role of state-owned enterprises has been crucial in shaping this dynamic so that at its peak the public sector and leading mining houses constituted two massive centres of power. This was followed by a thirty-year period of neo-liberal experimentation. The current debate on the 'developmental state' is an attempt to reconstruct the state as a counterweight to capital. It is argued that while the country has moved toward inclusive political and economic institutions, these are both limited by deep 'extractive' characteristics. This transformation failure provides a fertile ground for populism that presents one of the biggest threats to inclusive growth. Cited examples point to the many ways that states have sought to deal with the bonanza that conversion of mineral non-resources into resources brings. Such greenfield resources on state land, or in areas where the state holds monopoly rights, do not present ownership issues. It is suggested that this is the route that South Africa should follow, as the alternative will be conflictual.

Jan 1, 2013