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By S. K. Tarby, W. O. Philbrook

The rate of FeO and MnO reduction from silicate and aluminate slags by carbon-saturated iron is dependent on both slag composition and temperature. Owing to variable stirring rules during- the course of reaction, the reduction processes occur in two stages in stationary graphite crucibles. In the first stage the slirring caused by CO evolution results in forced convection conditions in the slag. As the boiling action subsides during reduction, the flow conditions within the system become those defined by natural convection. Analysis of the data by an unsteady-state penetration model indicates that the rate of reduction is controlled by the rate of cocur-rent flow of' cations and anions from the bulk slag to the interface during both stages of reduction. The hearth reactions of the blast furnace have been extensively investigated from the viewpoint of equilibrium by deductions from controlled laboratory experiments. However, the literature contains relatively few studies that have been directed toward the area of slag-metal reaction kinetics, and the majority of these have been concerned with the rate and mechanism of sulfur transfer between iron and slag. More recently, attention has turned to the kinetic factors in the reduction of oxides from liquid slags. One of the first investigations in this field was conducted by Dancy1 on the reduction of pure liquid FeO and pure liquid Fe3O4 by carbon-saturated iron. The integrated form of the rate equation indicated that the reduction of FeO was of the first order up to 80 pct reduction. Over the initial 30 pct of reduction, the magnetite reaction was also interpreted as a first-order process. The rates of reaction were extremely rapid as indicated by a 30 pct reduction of the liquid magnetite in a time interval of about 1 to 2 sec. Phil-brook and irkbbride' studied the reduction of FeO from a lime-alumina-silica slag by carbon-saturated iron and solid graphite in stationary crucible assemblies. With the use of the differential form of the rate equation, the rate of the reduction reaction was found to be proportional to the second power of the concentration of the reactant FeO for both the slag-metal and slag-graphite reactions. These authors presented a number of comments in an effort to explain the difference between the molecularity of the above reaction and the observed second-order relation. One such argument, recently extended by Wagner,3 was that the rate-limiting step may well be one of transport control. A complete discussion of the proposed mass-transport control mechanism of this reduction reaction will be presented in a later section of this paper. Kinetic studies of the reduction of other oxide species, namely chromous oxide, titania, and silica, have also been reported. McCoy and philbrook4 used rotating crucible assemblies to investigate chromium reduction from Ca0-SiO2-A12O3 slags. First-order kinetic law was obeyed for the slag-metal reduction reaction as determined by the integration method of data analysis. Due to scatter of the data, any dependence of the rate constant on temperature or slag composition was obscured. Concentration-time data for the reduction of titania from blast-furnace type slags under reducing conditions were obtained by Delve, Meyer, and Lander.' The data were too few, however, for a formal kinetic interpretation. Kinetic data for the very slow reaction of silica reduction have been observed by McCoy and Philbrook6 and Fulton and chipman.7 The former experimenters found the reaction-rate constant for silica reduction by carbon-saturated iron to be 20 to 60 times less than the rate constant for chromium reduction. In their work on the reduction of SiO2 in mechanically stirred systems, Fulton and Chipman also found small values for the specific reaction rate and derived a high value for the energy of activation for the reaction. In both of these investigations, the reduction process was assumed to follow first-order behavior. schuhmann8 proposed that the rate-limiting step in this reaction is the diffusion of oxygen from the interface through a boundary-layer film to the bulk metal phase, and Rawling and Elliott9 have reported experimental confirmation of this hypothesis for temperatures below 1600°C. Turkdogan et a1.10 have also concluded that the rate of reduction of silica is a slow process and controlled by the diffusion of oxygen in the metal, but only in the absence of carbon monoxide bubbles at the slag-metal interface. In the presence of bubbles, achieved either by injecting carbon monoxide at the slag-metal interface or by blowing it through the metal and slag, these investigators found a rather rapid reduction of silica which appeared to be controlled by an interfacial reaction involving the de-sorption of silicate ions from the slag-metal interface to the metal phase as silicon and oxygen atoms. In view of the unresolved nature of the kinetics of FeO reduction and the lack of kinetic data for the manganese reaction,

Jan 1, 1968

By F. P. Dewey

(Read at Amenia Meeting, October, 1877.) AT the Wilkes-Barre Meeting of the Institute, Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, in the course of his remarks on some peculiarities in the composition of irons, alluded to the so-called " buckshot" iron, and exhibited a specimen of this material. He said that when the small granules, or shot, were separated from the mass, they could be flattened under the hammer, and inferred that these particles had been decarburized by the blast before sinking into the hearth of the furnace, and thus we had the exceptional production of wrought iron in the blast furnace. I have recently obtained a characteristic specimen of this variety of iron from one of the furnaces at Orbisona, Pa. Considerable uncertainty existed as to its true nature and the conditions of its production. Its weight seemed to preclude the idea that it contained much or any slag, yet its lack of strength indicated that it was not homogeneous cast iron. At times considerable quantities had been produced, which could only be utilized by charging in the furnace and remelting. The specimen, on the freshly fractured surface, appeared to consist of flattened globules of iron cemented together by a bluish material which one would naturally suppose to be slag, and qualitative examination for lime strengthened this supposition. It was quite difficult to obtain drillings, as there was a tendency to split in several directions as soon as pressure was applied ; but enough was obtained to undertake quantitative determinations. They were found to consist of two portions-one attracted by the magnet, and the other not. By repeated separation the magnetic portion was found to be 94.44 per cent., and the non-magnetic 5.56 per cent. Analyses of these gave the following results :

Jan 1, 1878

A MINING institute open to all men interested in any branch of the mining industry will be held at the Col-lege of Mines, University of Washington, Seattle, during the week beginning March 5. Prospectors, miners, mine owners, persons interested in metallurgy, investors in min-ing enterprises, and the public generally are invited to at-tend. This institute will take the place of the Winter Min-ing Session which originated at Seattle in 1897 and con-tinued for twenty-eight years. The complete new equip-ment of the Mines Laboratory will be used to give demon-strations of new machines and processes of mining, ore dressing, and metallurgy. This year the ceramic industry, including cement and branches of clay working of special Importance in the Northwest, will be included in the insti-tute. All instruction will be given by specialists. Prominent technical men and managers will give lectures on their special subjects. Among the speakers engaged are G. T. Jackson, formerly superintendent of the Alaska-Gas-tineau and the Chichagof mines, who will speak on the mining of large bodies of low-grade ore; R. F. McElvenny, superintendent of the Tacoma Smelter, on the nature of contracts that a smelter can offer to mines and prospects; M. D. Leehey, mining lawyer, on some popular errors re-garding the mining law; H. H. Townsend, on the explora-tion and purchase of prospects by operating companies; J. L. McAllen, on quartz mining in the Willow Creek dis-trict, Alaska; F. Powell, on gold dredging. In the evenings, lectures illustrated by stereopticon views and moving pic-tures will be given. The week will close with an excursion o mines and plants.

Jan 3, 1928

By H. F. Bishop, F. A. Brandt, W. S. Pellini

M. S. Fisher and D. R. F. West (Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, England)—It may be of value to compare certain features of the results recorded in this very interesting paper with those of an investigation11 involving determinations of temperature gradients and rates of solidification of steel blocks of 3 in. sq section, cast horizontally in sand molds, some of which contained chills. Castings in plain carbon steels containing up to 0.8 pct C were made and, throughout this range of compositions, both inverse-rate and direct cooling curves, obtained from thermocouples placed within the mold cavity, showed a major arrest, the temperature of which was taken as the "effective liquidus" for the particular steel in question, solidifying under the conditions of the investigation. At the completion of the arrest, the curves showed a comparatively rapid de- crease in temperature. Some of the steels investigated lay within the peritectic region, and a second arrest at 1485°C was detected. In Fig. 15, which shows the effective liquidus temperatures, the limit of the 8 + liquid field has been placed at approximately 0.5 pct C. In inverse-rate curves corresponding to the thermal center of each casting, there was always a discontinuity, viz: an abrupt change of slope, at a temperature about 10 to 20°C below the "liquidus arrest," after which there seemed to be no significant irregularity in the rate of cooling. Curves corresponding to other positions in the casting generally showed some irregularities below the main arrest, probably as a result of heat flow from the solidifying interior. Even the reproducible discontinuity in the curves for the central positions appeared to have no theoretical or practical significance, though it probably corresponded to a stage in the solidification process at which only a relatively small amount of interdendritic liquid remained. Its temperature, rela-

Jan 1, 1953

By H. A. Bourne, E. L. Haden, D. R. Reichmuth

A circumferential-toothed bit with novel tooth form gave improved penetration performance. In this design the exterior flank of all teeth were vertical when in rolling contact with the hole bottom. Rock chips were generated by the interior flank of the tooth displacing the rock inwardly and downslope toward the center of the hole. A unique two-cone laboratory bit assembly enabled evaluation of numerous cone and tooth configurations. Some of the variables investigated, in addition to weight on bit, rotary speed and rock type, were tooth interference, percent tooth, hole bottom angle, attack angle and relief angle. Most tests were conducted dry on a brittle synthetic sandsone or a ductile quarried limestone. Tooth configurations were found to be more significant in the ductile material. This was attributed to the deeper tooth penetration before rock failure. These studies showed that the attack angle (angle beween interior flank of the tooth and rock surface) was the controlling variable; changing the tooth configuration from the assymetric or semi-wedge to the more conventional symmetric or wedge form reduced penetration performance; and penetration performance of circumferential-type cutters was directly proportional to rotary speeds up to 200 rpm. INTRODUCTION Much of the published literature on rock-chisel interactions describe experiments wherein symmetrical wedges are vertically loaded or impacted against a smooth rock surface.1-6 are is usually taken to insure that the indentation is not made near the edge of the rock specimen less erroneous data be obtained. The literature describes relatively few studies in which the investigator deliberately attempted to take advantage of an edge or free surface. In contrast, anyone who chips ice or breaks up a concrete sidewalk almost always works near an edge. Chisel "indexing," which has been considered by some investigator1,2,6,7 makes limited application of an edge or free surface. Probably the best documented investigation into applying this idea to drilling was that of Drilling Research Inc. at Battelle Memorial Institute.' Their "annular wing" percussion bit consisted of paired asymmetric chisels oriented so as to produce and move chips to the center of the hole. They predicted that the lowest energy requirement for chip generation would be achieved with a stepped hole bottom having a median angle of 45" to the horizontal. Results from limited tests showed that approximately 50 percent of the rock fragments were large and semi-circular in shape, as would be expected by a chisel impact near an edge. The remaining 50 percent were fine chips produced by the chisels in re-establishing the steps or ledges. Initial penetration rates with this bit were high, but they rapidly decreased. This was the result of excessive tooth wear caused by the constant friction on the gauge surfaces. The basic idea — circumferentially placed asymmetric chisels — still appears to have merit. If the concept could be applied to a rolling cutter bit, two of the shortcomings of the fixed chisel design could be overcome: (1) reduction in tooth friction, and (2) greatly increased cutter surface. Adapting asymmetric chisels to cutters rolling on an inclined hole bottom is restricted by bit geometry. The basic elements of roller rock-bit construction prevents the practical attainment of a 45" hole bottom angle. Nonetheless, experimentally it was considered desirable to investigate the influence of hole bottom angle to at least 40". This paper describes the laboratory studies conducted in evaluating the circumferential-toothed roller cutter rock bit. EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE BIT ASSEMBLY The cost of constructing a sufficient number of conventional three-cone rock bits to investigate circumferential cutter performance was prohibitive. Instead, a novel two-cone laboratory assembly which used an external bearing system was designed and constructed. The external bearings made it possible to alter the journal bearing angles and thus allow a wide flexibility in cutter configuration. Fig. 1 shows the laboratory bit assembly, the various bearing mount plates and the appropriate roller cutters for drilling shallow holes having hole bottom angles of 0, 10, 20, 30 or 40". The bit was limited to a drilling depth of 1 1/2 in. at the gauge teeth and a hole diameter of 43/4 in. This more or less intermediate size bit was chosen because it gave a more realistic match between bit teeth and the rock than would a microbit. Also, the rock sample size required was convenient and easy to obtain. CIRCUMFERENTIAL CUTTERS The tooth configuration used in our initial studies is shown in the upper half of Fig. 2. All cutters used in this series had the same tooth form — 43" included tooth angle, 2" positive relief angle and a horizontal tooth flat width of 1/32 in. Each cone cuts alternate rows except for the gauge row. The row-to-row spacing in view was 1/4 in. Static loading tests conducted earlier with asymmetrical chisels had been used to establish this spacing. These tests showed energy requirements for chip production increasing rapidly as the distances to the edge increased beyond

By R. I. Jaffee, F. C. Holden, H. R. Ogden

ECENT papers dealing with the properties of unalloyed iodide titanium have been directed primarily at the determination of base-line properties for alloy investigations. Early work was limited to a few tests because of the limited availability of iodide titanium at the time. In the results of papers by Campbell et al.,1 Gonser and Litton,2 Jaffee and Campbell,3 inlay and Snyder,4 and Jaffee, Ogden, and Maykuth, data on mechanical properties are presented for unalloyed iodide titanium in the annealed and cold-worked conditions. Data are presented in this paper which show the effects of heat treatment on the structure and mechanical properties of commercially produced iodide titanium. Correlation is made between microstruc-tural variables and the mechanical properties. Experimental Procedures Melting Stock: The melting stock used was as-deposited iodide titanium, produced by New Jersey Zinc Co. The furnished analysis showed the following range of impurities: N, 0.004 to 0.008 pct; Mn, 0.005 to 0.013; Fe, 0.0035 to 0.025; Al, 0.013 to 0.015; Mo, 0.0015; Pb, 0.0045 to 0.0065; Cu, 0.0015 to 0.002; Sn, 0.001 to 0.01; Mg, 0.0015 to 0.002; and Ni, 0.003. Hydrogen content as determined by vacuum-fusion analysis was 0.0091 wt pct (0.44 atomic pct) after arc melting and fabrication. Nitrogen analysis on the arc-melted and fabricated titanium showed a content of less than 0.002 pct N. The average hardness of the furnished stock was Rf 70, or approximately 85 VHN. Melting Procedure: The as-deposited rods were rolled, sheared, and degreased in preparation for arc melting. The charge was arc-melted with a tungsten electrode in a water-cooled copper crucible under a positive pressure of high purity (99.96 pct) argon. The final ingot was approximately 2 in. in diameter and showed no increase in hardness over that of the initial stock. Fabrication: Heating for fabrication was done in air. It was begun by forging the ingot into a 3/4 in. diam rod, at an initial temperature of 1600°F. Scale was removed by sandblasting. The rod was then swaged to 1/4 in. diam at room temperature through a series of 20 dies, with approximately 10 pct reduction in area between each die. An anneal of 1 hr at 850 °C in air was given after the 1/2 in. die, such that the final cold reduction was 75 pct. Sections cut from this rod were used for test and microstructure specimens. Heat Treatment: Heat treatments were carried out in resistance tube furnaces with stainless-steel linings, under an atmosphere of gettered argon. As further protection against contamination, the specimens were packed in titanium turnings in a titanium sleeve. Control experiments have shown negligible hardness increases with this method, indicating that contamination from oxygen and nitrogen is slight. Three cooling rates were employed in this work; these have been designated as water quenching, argon cooling (to simulate air cooling under a controlled atmosphere), and furnace cooling. The cooling rate for an argon cool is 100°C per min for the first minute, with an average cooling rate of 35°C per min over a 15-min period. A furnace cool requires about 10 hr, with an average cooling rate of 3.6oC per min during the first hour, and an average cooling rate of 1.2°C per min over the 10-hr period. Microimpact Test: The specimen adopted was based on the cylindrical Izod Type Y specimen (ASTM, E23-41T). All dimensions were reduced to half scale, including the notch radius. Specifications are shown in Fig. 1. The specimen is held vertically in an adapter and broken as a cantilever beam. Impact tests were run on a constant-velocity (11.34 ft per sec) Tinius Olsen impact testing machine with a total available energy of 100 in.-lb. Tests were made to determine the correlation between this microimpact and the standard V-notch Charpy impact test. Curves showing impact energy as a function of temperature for both impact tests are plotted in Fig. 2. Transition temperatures, when they occur, are about the same for both impact tests. All three titanium-rich materials have the same conversion factor, 10. Tensile Testing: Tensile tests were conducted on Baldwin-Southwark testing machines using the 600, 2400, or 3000 1b range. Specifications for the test specimen were taken from the 1948 edition of the ASM Metals Handbook, and are shown in Fig. 1. Strain measurements were made using an SR-4 resistance gage (Type A-7) cemented to the reduced section in conjunction with a lever-type extenso-meter. Readings on the SR-4 strain indicator were

Jan 1, 1954

By J. G. Early, F. V. Lenel, G. S. Ansell

The isothermal shrinkage rates of copper-powder compacts were determined in the temperature range from 760o to 1060oC. The rates for compacts fabricated from a pure spherical copper powder were compared, on the one hand, with those fabricated from a spherical powder containing a dispersion of aluminum oxide in the copper matrix and, on the other hand, with those fabricated from a pure copper powder having irregularly shaped particles. The irregular copper-powder compacts shrank much faster than the spherical copper-powder compacts and these, in turn, shrank faster than dispersion -strengthened copper -powder compacts. The experiments were run under a small external load. By varying this load, the stress dependence of the isothermal shrinkage rate could be measured for compacts from spherical-copper powders. This stress dependence was found to be approximately proportional to the 4th (dispersion-strengthened alloys) or 4.5th (pure metals) power of the stress. It is concluded that the material-trans port mechanism is due to dislocation climb rather than to Herring-Naharro creep. In this investigation the isothermal shrinkage rates of compacts made of copper powder with an average particle size of 70 g in the temperature range from 780o to 1060°C were studied. The aim of the investigation was to determine the mechanism of material transport responsible for the shrinkage of these compacts. Since the phenomenon observed in this investigation was shrinkage of compacts at high temperatures, it will be necessary to consider all the material-transport mechanisms possible in sintering. It is unlikely that evaporation and condensation, surface diffusion, or even volume diffusion of vacancies, in which surfaces of small radius of curvature are vacancy sources and those of larger radius of curvature vacancy sinks, will materially contribute to a sintering process involving shrinkage, i.e., one in which the centers of adjacent particles move towards each other. The two principal mechanisms which were considered were the so-called Nabarro-Herring mechanism and a plastic deformation mechanism by dislocation movement. Both of these mechanisms were originally conceived to explain creep, i.e., the plastic deformation of metals at elevated temperatures under a constant applied stress. The shrinking of metal-powder compacts which was studied in this investigation can be readily treated as a creep process. This means that the shrinkage rates observed are considered as creep rates under the influence of an applied stress. It is true that the stresses in sintering experiments are generally not constant but decrease continually with time, but, by considering creep rates or shrinkage rates over a relatively short time interval, the small changes in stress during this time interval can generally be neglected. Nabarro-Herring microcreep is a high-temperature deformation mechanism which is caused by a diffusional flow of vacancies from boundaries under a tensile stress towards those under a compres-sive stress. Herring1 has shown that in this type of microcreep the strain rate e is proportional to the applied stress and follows an equation of the form ma, aexp(-Q/RT) [l| where <j is applied stress, Q is the activation energy for self-diffusion, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature This type of creep can explain the shrinkage of a porous compact. The surface of the pores are subjected to the tensile stress of surface tension, while the grain boundaries are under a compressive stress also due to surface tension. Vacancies diffuse from the pore surface through the lattice to the grain boundaries, where they are eliminated. In order to maintain vacancy equilibrium at the pore surface the vacancies leaving the region of the pore surface are replenished from the volume of the pore, which means that the pores shrink.

Jan 1, 1964

By A. Styka, G. Fischer, S. Tour

Described herein are the results obtained during research work involving coating titanium alloys with molybdenum by vapor-deposition methods. Results show that the method can be used successfully to deposit hard adherent wear-resistant coating of methodmetallic molybdenum on titanium or titanium alloys without changing the microstructure of the titanium base. PRODUCTION and use of titanium and its alloys have increased tremendously in the past few years. The physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of this engineering metal have caused considerable enthusiasm among metallurgists and engineers. However, as with all materials, there are some drawbacks. For example, titanium is susceptible to seizing and galling on wearing surfaces. In order to produce a good wear-resistant surface, many investigations have been conducted evaluating oxidizing, carburizing, nitriding, carbonitriding, sili-conizing, and chromizing of titanium. All of these processes require high temperatures for rather extensive periods of time. It has been possible to produce hard surfaces on titanium and its alloys by a number of these processes at the expense of a deterioration of the physical properties of the base material. A practical solution to the problem of providing titanium and titanium alloy parts with a satisfactory wear-resistant nongalling surface must be one that does not involve excessive temperatures for long periods of time. Sam Tour & Co. Inc. has completed a research and development contract for the United States Army Ordnance Corps on vapor deposition of molybdenum on titanium and titanium alloys. On the basis of results obtained from the research program, titanium alloys can be coated successfully with molybdenum to provide a hard wear-resistant surface without harm to their base mechanical properties. The remainder of this article is a description of the techniques used to apply the coating and the results obtained from wear tests on molybdenum-coated titanium. Theory Basically, the technique used was the application of molybdenum by a vapor-deposition method, thermal decomposition of molybdenum hexacarbonyl [Mo(CO)] with hydrogen as the carrier gas. The selection of this method was based chiefly on the following considerations: 1—low plating temperature which would minimize excessive grain growth, 2— low decomposition temperature of the carbonyl, 3— possibilities of controlling the hardness of the plate by adjusting the carbon content using the plating temperature and pressure as the primary variables, 4—use of high vacuum, thereby avoiding unnecessary oxidation and other complex reactions with the atmosphere. Free energy data1 show the strong tendency for titanium to combine with O2 N2 or carbon from normal temperatures to temperatures above its melting point. To maintain the titanium in a film free condition, the use of as high a vacuum as possible is indicated. The literature&apos; indicates that the reaction product of hydrogen with titanium is unstable in vacuum at around 400°C. 5—Although it is indicated from the thermodynamic standpoint that there is little possibility of removing carbon from either titanium or molybdenum, the work of Lander and Germer -ndicates that the use of a suitable H,/CO ratio is somewhat effective in minimizing carbon deposition. 6—Availability of molybdenum carbonyl. In the simplest form, the conditions of equilibrium3 in chemical reactions involving decomposition of carbonyl are as follows: Mo (CO) ? Mo + 6CO 2CO * C + CO,. The plating rate is proportional to the rate of evolution of CO from the decomposed carbonyl, i.e., it is proportional to the pressure of the gaseous decomposition products. Carbon released from CO gas is the significant constituent for the variability of the physical properties of the product. High carbon deposition is favored by increasing pressure. Limitations are imposed in the selection of plating temperature and pressure. Excessive temperature re-

Jan 1, 1956

By C. Wachmann

The theory presented ill this paper makes possible examination of the phenomenological aspect of secondary oil recovery by alcohol flooding. Limitutions of the theory are contingent on three primary assumptions: (1) chemical equilibrium, (2) no fingering, and (5) no dispersion. The second assumption implies one-dimensional flow. In a geometric sense the theory extends the Buckley-Leverett construction to systems of two slightly miscible fluids and to systems of three components. This is made possible by considering single-phase fluids to be made up two phases, namely of an excess of one phase and a negative amount of the other phase. The procedure is discussed in the paper. The theory also permits direct determination of the relationship between the aqueous phase saturation and the concentration of water in the aqueous phase in a zone of variable composition. The velocity of planes of constant water concentration and of constant saturation can be computted likewise and the existence of saturation discontinuities inferred. Consequently the behavior of such a Zone, which may exist at some time between a displaced and a displacing fluid, May be determined. mathematical details are given in Appendices. Problems of experimental verification are pointed out on the basis of a supporting experiment. Implications of the theory and effects of violations of primary assumptions are discussed briefly. The major conclusion is that, if the primary assumptions are met, with pure alcohol and alcohol-rich .slugs piston-like displacement of oil and water is possible. INTRODUCTION The recovery of oil from porous media by alcohol displacement has been studied for several years. Extensive experimental investigations into alcohol flooding have been carried out in the laboratory although little has been done in the field. A large amount of practical information is available, the extent being indicated by the first three papers cited 1-3 and their respecrive bibliographies. This has permitted the Formulation of inferential theories. A more analytical approach in which theories are developed primarily by reasoning from known physical principles and relationships has, however, lagged behind. In fact, an analytically derived theory of alcohol displacement has not been available. The theory presented in this paper on oil and water displacement by alcohol from a porous medium is a result of the analytical approach. The theory is idealized, as certain assumptions had to be made to make the mathematics tractable and reduce complexity of argument. In particular, major assuptions concerning conditions of equilibrium, interfacial stability, longitudinal mixing, etc., led to the exclusion of fingering, for example, from all considerations. In many laboratory experiments reported in the literature fingering could not be avoided. There is, therefore, disagreement between theories based on experimental evidence available and the analytically derived theory presented here. This theory presented is based on known physical data and makes use of the Buckley-Leverett construction and its suggested extension. The mathematical derivation of the theory is given in Appendices. Three examples relevant to alcohol displacement are discussed to explain the use of this theory: (1) system of two immiscible fluids (the Buckley-Leverett case); (2) system of two slightly miscible fluids involving an extension of the Buckley-Leverett construction; and (3) system of three components, including injection of pure alcohol or alcohol-rich fluid as a special case, which involves a more general extension of the Buckley-Leverett construction. In these discussions strict assumptions were made to impose equilibrium conditions and exclude mixing and fingering. Effects of relaxing these assumptions and consequent extensions of the theory are indicated. The complexity of the alcohol displacement process makes experimental verification of the theory essential. Some relevant evidence is offered in this paper.

Jan 1, 1965

By C. B. Alcock, R. G. Hudson

Sulfur pressure measurements above FeS in equilibrium with iron have been carried out by the Knudsen orifice method. A comparison is made of the weight loss of the cell per unit time obtained in the above experiments, that calculated from Richardson and Alcock&apos;s measurements of the S2 pressure above FeS in equilibrium with iron, and the dissociation constant for diatomic sulfur from spectroscopic and thermal data. EXTENSIVE equilibrium measurements have been made to determine the sulfur potentials of a great many systems of metallurgical interest.&apos; In order to confirm their reliability, to supply data which may be of use in further thermodynamic calculations, and to establish the reliability of the Knudsen orifice in obtaining accurate thermodynamic values at high temperatures, the present investigation on the pressure of the gaseous species above FeS in equilibrium with iron has been carried out. The Knudsen orifice method has been used for these pressure measurements. Experimental The apparatus and general technique for this investigation are the same as that reported for the determination of the vapor pressure of silver.&apos; To reduce the residual gas pressure in the evacuated chamber, a titanium getter, maintained at run temperature, was introducbed. Several types of Knudsen cells were used—platinum, zircon, and fused silica. The orifice in the zircon cell was fashioned with a small diamond wheel. The same precautions were used in this investigation as were employed in the work on Mo2S2.3 The FeS-Fe mixture was prepared by heating a sample of pure FeS,, supplied by K. K. Kelley of the Bureau of Mines, with excess iron powder, cp grade, obtained from the Fisher Scientific Co. These two substances were heated in a closed Armco iron crucible at 960°C, held in a vacuum of less than 10" mm Hg for 24 hr. The mass was then removed from the cell and ground in an agate mortar. In this form it was charged to the various Knudsen cells. Heating the Knudsen cell for an additional two days was sufficient to obtain constant rates of weight loss of the cell. The data obtained in this investigation are recorded in Table I. To establish whether or not a sulfide of iron is volatile at these temperatures, 0.7646 g of the FeS-Fe mixture, described above and containing 69.2 pet Fe, was placed in the zircon Knudsen cell. Run Nos. 103 to 109 were performed on it. After the completion of these runs, the total amount of iron left in the cell was obtained by chemical analysis. It contained 0.537 g Fe, compared to 0.529 g in the original charge. Thus, there was an apparent gain in iron of 1.5 pet. This is attributed to unknown experimental error, and the conclusion is that no sulfide of iron is volatile. The vapor pressure of pure iron4 is about one thousandth that of the sulfur pressure&apos; at these temperatures. The vapor pressure of iron inside the Knudsen cell will be almost exactly that of pure iron, since in the iron-rich phase the percentage of sulfur is of the order of 0.025 pet.At this low percentage of sulfur Henry&apos;s law is probably obeyed by the sulfur. Thus, the iron will obey Raoult&apos;s law. In any event, the vapor pressure of iron will be lower than that of pure iron and, since the vapor pressure of pure iron is negligible compared to the pressure of sulfur, the weight loss of the cell due to the vaporization of iron should be negligible. Since neither iron nor FeS is volatile to an appreciable extent, the total weight loss of the cell must be due to the vaporization of sulfur. Discussion and Calculations On the assumption that S, is the only gaseous species present in appreciable quantity, its pressure

Jan 1, 1957

By M. P. Tixier, A. Poupon, M. E. Loy

Simple qualitative methods are explained for identifying those shaly sands in a well that are most likely to contain oil. A need for more precise measurement of the variables that enter shaly sand analysis is indicated. Field examples are given to illustrate the methods. A theoretical discussion of the quantitative interpretation of shaly sands is given as a basis for discussion and as a guide for the future. While not generally capable of practical application at the present time because of the lack of sufficient accuracy of the electric log data, these methods may become more feasible in the future as the result of the improved logging methods now being introduced. INTRODUCTION Experience has shown that for porous formations containing only a negligible amount of clayey material, reliable information on the fluid saturation and porosity of the reservoir rocks can usually be derived from the electrical logs. The interpretation is based on empirical formulae relating the true resistivity of a porous formation to its lithologic character, to the resistivity of the interstitial water, and to the proportions of water and hydrocarbons in the pores.&apos; If the resistivity of the interstitial water is not known, its approximate value can be derived from the SP curve.2,3 The porosity can usually be determined to a good approximation from a MicroLog, or a MicroLaterolog.4,5 When the reservoir rocks contain an appreciable percentage of clayey material, an additional factor is introduced into the analysis. In a clean formation, the matrix is an electrical insulator, so that the ability of the formation to conduct current is due only to the conductivity of the electrolytes in the pores; in a shaly formation, the shale constitutes a part of the rock matrix able to conduct current, and influences the resistivity of the formation. On the other hand, the spontaneous emf&apos;s and the circulation of the SP currents are also responsive to the presence of the shaly material. All other factors being the same, the deflection of the SP curve opposite a shaly permeable formation is smaller than the deflection which would be observed if the formation were clean. The effects of the presence of shale on the resistivity and on the SP curves in a shaly formation are functions of the amount, of the specific resistivity, and of the geometrical distribution of the shaly material within the formation. The presence of shale therefore constitutes an important complication in electrical log interpretation. It is easy to realize, for example, that the presence of a large amount of clayey material in a sand may have such a predominant effect that the resistivity of the sand will not change very much, whether the pores are entirely filled with connate water, or contain a high saturation of hydrocarbons. Important research projects have been undertaken to investigate the influence of shales and to find a way to allow for this influence in the interpretation of a log. The problem of the SP in shaly sands was analyzed mathematically by H. G. Doll"&apos; for the case of sands with shale laminations. Formulae expressing the resistivity of shaly formations were proposed by Patnode and Wyllie8 and de Witte.9 Other quite interesting theoretical and experimental results have been published by various authors.l0,ll,12,l3,14 The purpose of the present paper is to discuss an approach to electrical log interpretation in shaly sands. This approach is based partly on some of the theoretical and experimental data available in the literature and partly on observations made on actual field logs. Comparatively simple methods for qualitative and semi-quantitative analysis are described. These methods depend principally upon information provided by the electrical logs.

Jan 1, 1955

By J. M. Roberts, N. Brown

The stress-strain behavior of zinc single crystals was measured over a strain range of 10-6 to 10-2. The phenomenon of macroyielding was observed in detail and plastic strains were detected at almost zero-stress. Closed hysteresis loops were observed during loading and unloading in the strain region of about 10-5. From the hysteresis a frictional stress on the dislocation of about 6 psi was obtained. A preliminary analysis indicates that impurities are primarily responsible for the friction. Nonelastic Strains as much as 10 -4 were recovered depending on the amount of prior deformation. Part of the recovered strain occurs instantaneously upon unloading and the remainder occurs at zero stress. The time dependence of the recovered strain was measured. THIS investigation is concerned with the details of plastic deformation preceding the ordinary yield point as measured with the usual strain sensitivity of about 10-4. The approach leads to internal friction observations in the hitherto neglected frequency range below 10-1 cycles per sec. It is believed that if the phenomenon of macroscopic yielding is to be understood, then the stress-strain curve in the neighborhood of the macroyield point should be greatly magnified. It may then be possible to determine whether macroscopic yielding is a unique event or whether it is a process which begins gradually at a lower stress. In the case of low-carbon steel a unique event obviously occurs at the macroscopic yield point as indicated by a drop in the load, but copper appears to exhibit a gradual transition from the elastic to the plastic state. In zinc the yield point is rather abrupt although the data indicates that some plastic deformation precedes large scale yielding.&apos; One of the purposes of this investigation is to determine whether there is an abrupt transition from the preyield microstrain region to the region of macroscopic deformation. Such a rapid transition would support the concept that there is a critical stress for yielding. The concept that yielding is a unique event associated with such phenomenon as activating a Frank-Read source, freeing the dislocation from solute atoms, dislocations cutting through dislocations, or dislocations moving freely by one another, has been expounded widely on theoretical grounds. It is hoped that highly sensitive measurements of strain in the neighborhood of the macroscopic yield point will shed some light on the event known as the "Yield Point". EXPERIMENTAL METHOD 1) Specimens—High-purity zinc was cast into spherical graphite moulds in air and grown into spherical single crystals by the Bridgman method under a positive pressure of Argon gas. Spectro-graphic analysis of cleaved sections from four crystals showed a purity of 99.994 pet Zn. The specimens were acid machined with an 1/8 in. gage section in a form similar to those used by Parker and co-workers.2 Bausch type grips were fastened to the specimen by Epon VI adhesive. The specimens were oriented so that only [1120] (0001) slip occurred. Fig. 1 shows two of the specimens in the grips. Prior to each test, the gage section of the specimen was given a concentrated HNO3 chemical polish followed by alcohol rinsing and air blast drying. 2) Test Method- The shear tests were performed on an Instron testing machine and the experimental set-up was made very "hard". Strain could be measured to a sensitivity of 10 -6 by means of a capacitance gage extensometer. The design and calibration of this type of extensometer to measure microstrain, as applied to pure shear and tensile tests of metals, will be the subject of a separate paper—therefore, only a brief account will be presented here. The method essentially consists of attaching a

Jan 1, 1961

By Leonard L. Melton, Calvin D. Saunders

The design and performance of many operations common to the petroleum industry depend upon the unique properties of a class of materials known as non-Newtonian fluids. The art of measuring and describing these properties, called rheology, has fallen far behind the field applica-tion of these fluids in this industry. Empirical methods are still employed although theoretically sound methods of analysis are now available. This paper illustrates a completely general method of analysis of the rheological properties of non-Newtonian fluids which id independent of the type of viscometer employed and also the rheological type of fluid encountered except those of a thixo-tropic or rheopectic nature. Values of the rheological properties of a fluid obtained using this method of analysis are based upon an absolute scale of measurement, eliminating the necessity of employ-jng arbitrary concepts of the flow properties of non-Newtonian fluids, The fundamental nature of this method of analysis is further demonstrated by evaluating the precision with which measurements have been made of these rheological properties by employing a dimensionless criteric: —the Fanning friction factor-Reynolds number correlation. INTRODUCTION Non-Newtonian fluids are not new in the petroleum industry. Particular properties of non-Newtonian materials have been recognized and used to advantage in drilling fluids and have found excellent application in the hydraulic fracturing process.&apos;.&apos; While usage of these fluids is not new in this industry, the art of measuring and describing their rheological properties is still in its infancy. This is reflected in the accepted method of evaluating drilling fluids, API RP 29, (1950), which recommends a one point "viscosity" measurement. These shortcomings are recognized by various groups in the industry and more adequate methods have been prposed.3,4 The efforts Of these people are to be commended; but, at the same time, the limitations of their method of analysis and viscometer must be appreciated. This method Of analysis is applicable Only to Bingham plastic fluids as is pointed out early in their articles. The consistency of a Bingham plastic fluid must also lie within the range of the viscometer which is also well defined by the author. It is believed that the apparent simplicity of this method of analysis and the utility Of Operation Of their viscometer will soon make the terms non-Newtonian fluid and Bingham plastic fluid synonymous as used in this industry; a tendency which has already been encountered. Application of this method of analysis to a non-Newtonian fluid other than a Bingham plastic can lead to erroneous results. The field of rheology has long been hampered by the adherence to arbitrary concepts of Of of the flow properties Of non-Newtonian fluids. This has resulted in the design and operation of viscometers so as to fulfill these concepts rather than following the more logical method of analyzing experimental data so as to yield a fundamental truth. completely Bingham proposed the concept Of plastic flow and yield asu rement. data presented by Buckingham could hardly be interpreted so as to substantiate this theory; but rather succeeded in establishing the fact that compliance with this flow concept could never be realized in the capillary tube vis-cometer.5 Bingham, in reply, sug-gested "Rather than complicate our formula, it would seem to me a much better plan to so change the conditions of flow that the formula will be linear... Reiner0 stated .This plan has been followed by me in collaboration with Miss Riwlin. . . . From the present paper (Reiner and Riwlin, 1929) it will be seen that it is possible to choose the conditions of flow so that the formula based on Bingham&apos;s law of plastic flow remains linear. This is realized in the rotation viscometer," Thus, a viscometer, with design and operation based on the Reiner and Riwlin equation for plastic flow, is restricted to a specific range of flow

Jan 1, 1958

By P. T. Bail, J. E. Bobek

In reservoirs containing soft shales interbedded with oil-producing sands, it is possible to have water movement from the shales into the sands during reservoir depletion. This paper presents the results of scaled flow-model tests performed to investigate the efficiency of oil displacement by this vertical influx of water into oil-producing sands. In these model tests, the effects of rate of influx and rock wettability were considered. Oil recoveries by shale-wafer influx and by water flooding were cornpared after 0.4 hydrocarbon volume of water entered the producing sand. This comparison was made for water-wet and oil-wet systems. In water-wet sand, shale-water influx produces slightly less oil than conventional water flooding; in oil-wet sand, shale-water influx produces about one-half as much oil as conventional water flooding. In another type of comparison, it was found that shale-water influx followed by water flooding recovers less oil than water flooding alone. This is true for both water-wet and oil-wet sands. A comparison of tests run at different rates of shale-water influx shows that oil recovery is insensitive to rate in water-wet sand; in oil-wet sand, oil recovery decreases with decreasing rate of influx. INTRODUCTION Localized subsidence of the earth&apos;s surface has accompanied the depletion of some oil reservoirs, particularly in California,1, 2 along the Texas Gulf Coast,3 4 and in the Bolivar Coastal fields of Venezuela. Subsidence occurs when fluid withdrawals reduce the pressure in the reservoir. The reasons for subsidence accompanying a reduction in reservoir pressure are not known with certainty.10° However, there is considerable evidence that compaction of soft shale beds adjacent to producing oil sands can be a major cause of this subsi-dence.3, 6, 10-12 When the shales compact, a limited amount of water moves from the shales into the producing sands. A schematic illustration of this oil-producing mechanism is shown in Fig. 1. As the pressure in the sand declines due to oil production, a predominantly vertical pressure gradient develops at the sand-shale boundary. This causes water to move from the shale into the sand as indicated by the solid arrows. This paper reports the results of scaled flow-model tests to investigate the efficiency of oil displacement by the vertical influx of shale water into producing sands. The model tests were not performed with the aim of duplicating the recovery behavior of any specific reservoir. The primary purpose of the tests was to obtain a better understanding of oil displacement by shale-water influx. A knowledge of the oil- and water-production characteristics of even a simplified reservoir system should be of value to engineers estimating the performance of reservoirs where shale-water influx is occurring in conjunction with other production mechanisms. The following limitations and assumptions apply to the model work. 1. The sand of the prototype reservoir is homogeneous and horizontal. 2. The shale-water influx is uniformly distributed along the top and bottom of the sand member being studied. 3. No effects of edge-water drive or dissolved-gas drive that might accompany shale-water influx are considered. PROTOTYPE RESERVOIRS Scaled-model tests were performed to study oil displacement from three prototype reservoir sections. The reservoir sections modeled consist of single sand layers out of a sequence of -sand and -shale layers, as illustrated in Fig. 1. Each prototype represents a homogeneous, high-permeability, unconsolidated sand layer. In the field, the prototype is oriented in such a manner that one end is at the radius of drainage of a producing well and the other end is pointed toward the producing well (Fig. 2). The sand and fluid properties and the dimensions of the three prototypes are given in Table 1. The capillary pressure relationships for the three prototypes are presented in Figs. 3, 4 and 5. The oil-water per-

By I. Zaplatynskyj, G. C. Kuczynski

SINCE the excellent studies of metal powder compaction executed by Kamm, Steinberg, and Wulff, no work on the subject has appeared in the technical literature. Kamm et al. were the first to investigate quantitatively the distribution of density in a powder compact, as a function of pressure, height and diameter of the die, powder particle size, etc. For this purpose they devised a very ingenious method. They inserted a thin lead grid into a die and then filled the die with powder. During cold pressing, the lead grid -moved downward. Due to its deformability it followed closely the downward descent of the adjacent powder. The die was then radiographed and, from the deformations of the grid openings measured on the radiographs, the density in the vicinity of each opening was evaluated. Their findings led them to the conclusion that the friction on the side walls of the die is a major controlling factor of the density distribution inside the cold pressed powder compacts. However, it is difficult to conduct tests similar to those of Kamm, Steinberg, and Wulff in a processing plant laboratory, which usually lacks the necessary expensive radiographic equipment. The purpose of this note is to describe a method which makes it possible to determine the density distribution in green powder compacts with the same accuracy as the lead-grid method but which is far simpler and faster and requires only standard laboratory equipment. Instead of using a lead grid, the hardness at selected points of the sectioned compact is determined. If the relationship between hardness and density is known the density distribution is readily obtained. This relationship is easily found from measuring hardness and densities of thin compacts. In such compacts the density, for all practical purposes, is constant throughout. The method was tested on a Plast nickel powder, grade FlA-A20, kindly supplied by Plast Metals Co. Thin compacts (height to diameter ratio 0.2) were pressed in a single action cylindrica1 die at various pressures. The density of the compacts was determined by weighing and by measuring the height and diameter with a micrometer. Subsequently the Rh hardness was determined. Up to ten readings were taken on each specimen. The difference in hardness readings on each compact was never greater than three corresponding to about 0.1 g per cu cm uncertainty in density. By varying the compaction pressure of the samples, a whole scale of densities was obtained allowing construction of a set of density-hardness calibration curves. To test the method several compacts of different height were pressed under varying pressures. Die walls were always well lubricated. After pressing, the compacts were mounted in bakelite and halved by grinding, and hardness readings taken along the diameters of the specimens. The distance between adjacent indentations was about 2.5 mm. After hardness readings were translated into densities, contour maps of densities of the compacts were prepared. One of them is reproduced in Fig. 1. The areas encompassed by the curves are labeled with numbers representing the density in g per cu cm of those regions. In Fig. 2 the same results are re-plotted to emphasize the radial density changes at various depths. The results thus obtained confirm the findings of Kamm, Steinberg, and Wulff kentioned previously. They are recapitulated here briefly. 1—The densest part of a compact pressed from one side is at the outer circumference at the top and the least dense part at the bottom, at the outer circumference. Figs. 1 and 2 show this clearly. 2—The density near the cylindrical surfaces of the compact decreases uniformly with height from top to bottom. 3—The density variation increases with the height to diameter ratio. References R. Kamm, M. A. Steinberg, and J. Wulff: Trans. AIME (1941) 171,&apos;R. p. 439 ;MetaLs Technology (February 1941). R.p. Kamm, M. A. Steinberg, and J. Wulff: Trans. AlME (1949) 180, 2R.P. 694; MetalS Technology (December 1948).

Jan 1, 1957

By C. A. Mitke

(Butte Meeting, August, 1913.) 1. Character of Gases which Caused Helmets to Get Out of Order. DURING September, 1911, the fire area, in the Lowell mine continually increased. and gases resulting from the fire came through the upcast shaft. These gases contained such a large percentage of sulphur dioxide that the men were unable to go up and down on cages, and, within a comparatively short time, repairs in the shaft were found to be necessary. Since the fire was in sulphide ores and extended into certain timbered sections, the gases contained varying amounts of SO2, CO2, and perhaps, at times, CO. The temperature in the shaft was generally about 97°, and the relative humidity from 97 to 99.5 per cent. The corrosive action of the fumes became apparent when the cables had to be changed more often than usual, the heads of lag screws in the guides of the shaft disappeared, and the cages needed frequent repairs. It also became necessary to repair two compartments of the shaft by putting in 150 ft. of new guides between the 600 and 800 levels and lag screws in nearly all the old guides from the surface to the 800 level. 2 Ordinary Methods of Testing Helmets which were Unsatisfactory. These conditions required all work to be done by men wearing oxygen helmets. The Draeger type was tried, and was used until all repairs were completed. At first the helmets were tested for air circulation and air tightness .and the injector was tested by water gauge according to the methods recommended by the Draeger Oxygen Apparatus Co. Six arrangements, covering these different tests, are illustrated in the catalogue and circulars of the company.

Jan 7, 1913

By Hsun Hu

NOT much data are available in the literature on textures in cross-rolled metal sheets. Among the body-centered-cubic metals, a few investigators have studied the preferred orientations developed in cross-rolled and in subsequently annealed molybdenum specimens.1-4 Semchyshen and Timmons5 onstructed complete pole figures for the cross-rolled and subsequently annealed arc-cast molybdenum. They used the conventional photographic method. Similar data on cross-rolled iron are still lacking. In view of the fundamental importance of iron as a basic metal for magnetic alloys and many industrial steels, the present investigation was undertaken in an attempt to understand more about its properties. The material selected for the present work was of high purity, and the textures were determined by the Geiger counter spectrometer technique, which permits the construction of quantitative pole figures. Experimental Procedure The material used for this investigation was NRC (National Research Corp.) high-purity, gas-free iron. The total gas content (N2 + O2 + H2) given was less than 0.026 pct, and the carbon content, less than 0.005 pct. Spectrographic analysis of a 2 in. cast ingot showed the percentage of metallic impurities as 0.0004 pct Cu, 0.0002 pct Mg, 0.001 pct Mn, 0.01 pct Ni, and 0.006 pct Si. A 1 in. thick slice was cut off from the 2 in. cast ingot. It was hot-forged at 850 °C to destroy most of the cast structure. Surface scale was removed by milling the forged piece to a size 2 in. long, 1½ in. wide, and ¾ in. thick. After normalizing at 915 °C for 15 min, the piece was alternately cold-rolled 40 pct and annealed at 750°C in hydrogen to a final thickness of 0.165 in., with a resulting uniform grain size of 0.1 mm.

Jan 1, 1958

Statistics compiled by the United States Geological Survey show that the iron ore mined in the United States in 1917 reached a total of 75,288,851 gross tons, exceeding the former record output of 1916 by 121,179 tons. The shipments from the mines in 1917 were 75, 573,181 gross tons, valued at $238,260,333, a decrease in quantity of 2,297,372 tons, or 2.95 per cent., and an increase in value of $56,358,056, or 30.98 per cent., over the shipments in 1916. The average value per ton at the mines for all grades of ore in 1917 was $3.15 as against $2.34 in 1916. Stocks of iron ore at mines, mainly in Minnesota and Michigan, amounted at the close of 1917 to 10,628,908 gross tons, compared with 10,876,352 gross tons in 1916. The quantity of pig iron, exclusive of ferro-alloys, sold or used in 1917, according to reports of producers to the United States Geological Survey, amounted to 38,612,546 gross tons, valued at $1,053,785,975; compared with 39,126,324 gross tons, valued at $663,478,118 in 1916, a decrease of 1.32 per cent. in quantity and an increase of 59 per cent. in value. The average price per ton at furnaces in 1917, as reported to the Survey, was $27.29, compared with $16.96 in 1916, an increase of 61 per cent. The production of pig iron, including ferro-alloys, was 38,647,397 gross tons in 1917, compared with 39,434,797 gross tons in 1916, a decrease of 4.5 per cent., according to figures published by the American Iron and Steel Institute, March 18, 1918.

Jan 12, 1918

The meeting of the Board of Directors, on November 22, was attended by eight directors, the Secretary of the Institute, and eight guests. The proposed James Douglas Prize and Tablet was referred to a committee of eleven. Robert H. Richards was appointed representative of this Institute to attend the meeting of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education. J. V. N. Dorr was made chairman of the Finance Committee in place of George D. Barron, resigned. The sum of $200 was appropriated for the 1918 expense of the American Engineering Standards Committee; the question of an appropriation for 1919 was referred to the Executive Committee for study and report. The sum of $50 was appropriated to the Treasurer&apos;s clerk. The following representatives of the Institute were elected: W. L. Saunders to succeed himself as United Engineering Society Trustee; R. M. Raymond to succeed himself as member of Engineering Foundation Board; S. J. Jennings to succeed himself as member of Engineering Council; George F. Kunz to succeed himself as member of Engineering Council; C. F. Rand to succeed himself as member of John Fritz Medal Board of Award; E. Gybbon Spilsbury to succeed himself as member of the Library Board. To members of the Canadian Mining Institute residing in Canada or Newfoundland, the privilege was extended to subscribe to the Bulletin at the price of $5. An invitation was extended to the Mining and Metallurgical Society of America to consolidate with the American Institute of Mining Engineers. The appointment of Engineering Societies&apos; Employment Bureau was reported. Thirty-nine members and ten associates were elected. Two members were reinstated. Extension of time for the payment of clues was granted to four members. Seventeen members on active duty at the front had their dues remitted.

Jan 1, 1919

At the meeting of the Board of Directors the following resolution was passed: "The members of the Board of Directors of the American Institute of Mining Engineers desire: to place on record their appreciation of the very great generosity of one of their colleagues and a member of the Board, George D. Barron, expressed in his gift of $5000 to relieve the financial stringency caused by the unusual expenditures of the Institute for war work and the remission of dues of those members on active service." By-Law VIII. was amended to make a slight change in District No. 5. The report of the Auditing Committee was accepted. Tellers were appointed to: count the ballots on officers and on the proposed amendment. The proposed budget for the year 1919 was presented. The following resolution re Secretary Emeritus Rossiter W. Raymond, which had been prepared, by request, by Dr. A. R. Ledoux was then unanimously adopted. "The Board of Directors of the American Institute of Mining Engineers would place upon its minutes its profound sense of loss and sorrow in the death of Rossiter Worthington Raymond, Ph. D., LL. D., Secretary Emeritus of the Institute. Both as one of its founders and as its Sec-retary for 27 years, his was the guiding spirit of the Institute for more than a generation. "During the greater part of this long period, it might almost have been said that the Institute was Dr. Raymond-and Dr. Raymond the Institute. When with the progress of growth and development, great changes were introduced, Dr. Raymond acquiesced in these in spite of some misgivings, such as those with which a father might contemplate the emergence of his child from the careful supervision of the home; but as Secretary Emeritus for the past eight years, lie was always ready with valuable advice and helpful suggestion.

Jan 3, 1919