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WE the undersigned, being all persons of full age and citizens of the United States, and a majority residents of the State of New York, desiring to form a corporation pursuant to the provisions of the Membership Corporations Law for the purpose of incorporating, as provided in Section 5 of Article I. of said law, the existing unincorporated association known as American Institute of Mining Engineers, do hereby make, acknowledge and file this Certificate for that purpose, and do Certify as follows: I. That the American Institute of Mining Engineers is an unincor¬porated association organized and existing with the object of promoting the arts and sciences connected with the economic production of the useful minerals-and metals and the welfare of those employed in these industries by means of meetings for social intercourse and the reading and discussion of professional papers, and to circulate by means of publi¬cations among its members and associates the information thus obtained. II. That the persons duly appointed or designated to manage the affairs of said association are designated by the rules thereof Members of its Council; that the undersigned are all members of said Council as the same was constituted on the 29th day of December, 1904. III. That on said last-mentioned date a regularly called meeting of said association was held at its office in the Borough of Manhattan, City of New York; that thirty days before such meeting notice of the intention to incorporate said association was given by mail to each member thereof whose residence or post-office address is known; that at said meeting the following resolutions were offered, seconded and duly adopted by the unanimous vote of all its members then present, to wit: "Resolved, That it is the sense of the members and associates of the American Institute of Mining Engineers in general meeting assembled that it is desirable and necessary for the well being of said association and its members and for the furtherance of the objects for which the same has been formed, that said association incorporate under the Membership Corporations Law of the State of New York;

Jan 1, 1923

By R. J. Blackwell, J. R. Rayne, J. R. Henderson, W. M. Terry, D. C. Lindley

This paper presents the results of a laboratory investigation of the efficiency of water-solvent mixtures in recovery of oil. These mixtures may have the high displacement efficiencies characteristic of solvent floods and the high sweep efficiencies characteristic of water floods. Thus, the water-solvent process may increase the number of reservoirs in which a miscible-type displacement can be used profitably. The experiments on the use of water-solvent mixtures for recovery of oil were conducted to find the general applicability of the process. These studies demonstrated that, in flowing through sands, water and solvent segregated into a solvent layer on the top and a water layer on the bottom rather than flowing through the sands as a uniform mixture. Calculations based on the simultaneous flow of the water and solvent in layers were used to predict the effective mobility of the mixtures and the optimum operation of the process in steeply dipping, homogeneous reservoirs. As most reservoirs are not suited for the operation of the process under ideal conditions, experimental studies were conducted with sand-packed models scaled to represent more realistic reservoirs. These studies included the effects on recovery of oil of rate of injection, viscosity of oil, variations of permeablity within a formation and variations in water-solvent ratio. For the range of con-ditions studied, higher recoveries of oil were obtained with water-solvent mixtures than with water or practical volumes of solvent alone. INTRODUCTION A group of intriguing—because of their great possibilities—new oil recovery methods at the disposal of the petroleum engineer are the miscible displacement processes. These processes (high-pressure gas drive, en-riched-gas drive and LPG bank driven by methane) displace all of the oil from the portions of the reservoir swept by the injection fluid. The key question confronting the engineer applying one of these techniques to a particular reservoir is, "What fraction of the reservoir can be swept by injection of a practical volume of solvent?"." Intensive laboratory studies have been made during the past several years in seeking answers to the question of the sweep efficiencies which can be expected in solvent floods.' - These studies provided the answer that low-viscosity, low-density solvents channel and by-pass oil in sands with no dip. In horizontal sands, solvent flooding becomes less efficient as the viscosity of the oil increases, the recovery of oil at solvent breakthrough decreases and larger volumes of solvent are required to achieve a given recovery. More efficient displacement of oil by solvent is observed under certain conditions in sands with dip.".' If the permeability and dip of the sand are sufficiently high, gravity segregation of low-density solvent injected updip can prevent channeling. At rates of depletion below a critical rate,"." no channeling occurs. Unfortunately, in many reservoirs, the critical rate is so low that production of oil at rates below this rate is not economically attractive. And at rates over four times the critical rate, channeling is almost as severe in sands with dip as in horizontal sands. These findings pointed out that, for solvent floods to be generally applicable in recovering oil from all types of reservoirs, new methods of improving their sweep efficiencies are needed. Simultaneous injection of water with the miscible fluid was suggested by Caudle and Dyes7 as a method for improving sweep efficiencies. They theorize that water flowing with the solvent would decrease the effective mobility of the solvent and cause it to contact more oil sand. If, indeed, the water and solvent flowed as a uniform mixture, the process should have the advantages of the high displacement efficiencies characteristic of miscible floods and the high sweep efficiencies of water floods. Thus, the method (at least in theory) would greatly increase the number of reservoirs in which miscible-type displacements would be feasible. A research program was conducted to probe the technical feasibility of the water-solvent process. It

By P. M. Blair

This paper presents numerical solutions of the equations describing the imbibition of water and the countercurrent flow of oil in porous rocks. The imbibition process is of practical importance in recovering oil from heterogeneous formations and has been studied principally by experimental means. Calculations were made for imbibition of water into both linear and radial systems. Imbibition in the linear systems was allowed to take place through one open, or permeable, face of the porous medium studied. ln the radial system, water was imbibed inward from the outer radius. The effects on rate of imbibition of varying the capillary pressure and relative permeability curves, oil viscosity and the initial water saturation were computed. For each case studied, the rate of water imbibition and the saturation and pressure profiles were calculated as functions of time. The results of these calculations indicate that, for the porous medium studied, the time required to imbibe a fixed volume of water of a certain viscosity is approximately proportional to the square root of the viscosity of the reservoir oil whenever the oil viscosity is greater than the water viscosity. Results are also presented illustrating the effects on rate of imbibition of the other variables studied. INTRODUCTION The process of imbibition, or spontaneous flow of fluids in porous media under the influence of capillary pressure gradients, occurs wherever there exist in permeable rock capillary pressure gradients which are not exactly balanced by opposing pressure gradients (such as those resulting from the influence of gravity). The importance of such capillary movement in the displacement of oil by water or gas was recognized in early investigations and described by Leverett, Lewis and True in 1942.1 Methods advanced by these authors for studying the process using dynamically scaled models were rendered more general and flexible by the research of later workers.2"4 The influence of capillary forces in laboratory water floods has also been discussed by several authors.6 While imbibition plays a very important role in the recovery of oil from normal reservoirs, Brownscombe and Dyes7 pointed out that imbibition might be the dominant displacement process in water flooding reservoirs characterized by drastic variations in permeability, such as in fractured-matrix reservoirs. In water-wet, fractured-matrix reservoirs, water will be imbibed from fractures into the matrix with a countercurrent expulsion of oil into the fractures. If the imbibition occurs at a sufficiently rapid rate, a very successful water flood can result; if the imbibition proceeds slowly the project might not be economically attractive. Scaled-model studies have demonstrated the vital importance of imbibition in secondary recovery in fractured reservoirs. It is therefore important in the evaluation of waterflooding prospects to develop a thorough understanding of the quantitative relationships of the factors which control the rapidity of capillary imbibition. The imbibition process serves reservoir engineers in still another important way by providing a technique for studying the wettability of reservoir core samples. Such experiments are usually conducted by observing the rate of expulsion of oil or water from core samples submerged in the appropriate fluid. Several papers have been 'published on the experimental techniques involved?? Although Handy has recently published a method for calculating capillary pressures from experiments with gas-saturated cores, it has not yet been possible to deduce quantitative information regarding water-oil relative permeability and capillary pressure characteristics of the rock from the experimental results. Thus a technique is needed for studying the quantitative dependence of imbibition rate on oil and water viscosity, initial water saturation, relative permeability-saturation, and capillary pressure-saturation relations. The development of such information, including saturation and pressure profiles by laboratory experiments, would be very difficult. However, recent advances in the applica-

Jan 1, 1965

By A. Gittens

In two recent papers stevens13,14 has compared the methods used by various investigators to calculate the contribution of grain boundary sliding to the total creep strain. In previous work Gittins15 has shown that the strain due to grain boundary sliding Egb may be estimated from the lateral, d, and vertical, v, displacements of a longitudinal marker line as it crosses a grain boundary. He obtained the formula, where nL is the number of grains per unit length measured on the specimens before creep, and \p and ?2 are, respectively, the angle between the grain boundary and the stress axis in the plane of the surface and normal to the surface (see Ref. 13, Fig. 1). The subscript L indicates that observations are made in a longitudinal direction parallel to the stress axis. It was generally found more convenient to measure the grain size of a specimen before creep; this was necessary to characterize the specimen. Stevens13,14 however prefers to define Egb in terms of NL, the number of grains per unit length after creep. Since nL - NL(l + €1) where cr is the total strain, Eq. 1 11 becomes The quantities d and ?, can be determined directly from the marker lines, while v and ?2 are found by sectioning normal to the surface. In the interior when symmetry considerations suggest that v = d and ?1 - ?2 the strain due to grain boundary sliding may be estimated from a suitable internal longitudinal marker line by the equation To determine cgb at the surface using either Eqs. |1| or [2] requires a large number of observations, particularly if many estimates of cgb are required, and also it is impossible to determine the variation of cgh with creep strain on the same specimen because the specimen must be sectioned to determine ?2. Gittins15 found that for a number of materials the sliding vectors d and v were related to each other so that provided one was measured the other could be estimated. Also during creep, grain boundaries tend to migrate to meet the surface at angles close to 90 deg,16 so that the term nL(v/tan?2)L was comparatively small when 4,- 90 deg. By determining the frequency distributions of ?2 on control specimens this term can be estimated without sectioning the creep specimen. In this way an empirical equation based on Eqs. |1| and |2| enables cgb to be determined with reasonable accuracy with fewer observations of the angles and sliding components. For B brass, the relationship between the sliding vectors indicated that ceb = 0.85nLVL . In Table I of Stevens paper this equation is stated to be incorrectly derived. However it should be pointed out that this is an empirical equation derived from Eq. |1|, based on a knowledge of the relationship between d and v and on the frequency distributions of ?1 and ?2 for a particular material under given experimental conditions. It was used only when these relationships were known, to reduce the number of observations required to estimate cb. Therefore the comment "derivation incorrect does not apply. Gittins did in fact make use of Eqs. |1| and 131. Author's Reply I must apologize to Dr. Gittins for the inadvertent misrepresentation of his work. Other slight errors in Table I have been pointed out to me. Langdon (No. 12 Table I), Gifkins (No. 7, Table I), and possibly other workers did not measure the number of boundaries per unit length after creep (A') but the corresponding quantity bejove creep (n). As Dr. Gittins points out, a completely analogous set of equations to those given in the paper can be derived by the same method: using the number of boundaries per unit length before instead of after creep. The basic equations corresponding to Eqs. [2] and 171 of the paper, from which all the others can be derived, are

Jan 1, 1968

By G. A. Beiswenger

The application of the law of supply and demand to the sale of crude oil is generally conceded, but the motives underlying the buyer's (refiner's) demands are not always obvious to the seller (producer). In some cases this obscurity has led to the conclusion that the refiner may be unnecessarily particular when he selects one crude and rejects another. This preference, however, is very largely the reflection of the refiner's product demands and the quality of the stocks obtainable from the selected crude. The purpose of this paper is to point out critical characteristies of the major classes of refined products and to show how crudes vary in their suitability for such products. With relatively few exceptions, available processing methods and addition agents make it theoretically possible to produce any type of refined product from any crude source, although it may not be economically sound to do so. The widespread application of thermal cracking for converting higher boiling stocks into gasoline is well known. More recently cracking and refining in the presence of catalysts9 have been developed, as well as various processes for polymerizing lighter hydrocarbons into gasolines having desirable characteristics.6 For several years, selective solvents have been applied commercially to refining inferior quality kerosene, Diesel fuel and lubricating oil distillates.3 Improved methods for refining lubricating oils from crude residual4 formerly suitable only for fuel, are now in use and a number of special solvent processes are available for dewaxing lubricating oils to low pour point.5 These improved refining methods have been developed not only to meet the demand for improved product quality but also to enable the refiner to obtain quality products from crude sources that would not yield such products by the older refining methods. In many cases, the utilization of these modern refining tools necessitates an appreciable expenditure for equipment as well as added manufacturing costs, and their application therefore must be justified economically. Despite the availability of such tools, the added processing costs involved and yields obtainable may render their application entirely impractical. To illustrate this point, inspections of typical cuts from various crudes

Jan 1, 1940

By J. W. Fuller

DURING the last 20 years, experimenters have sought to utilize pulverized coal in boiler plants, but refractory and slag troubles have usually overbalanced any, gains in efficiency that were obtained. These troubles were caused largely by lack of knowledge of the proper methods of coal preparation and lack of a furnace design that would be adaptable to pulverized-coal firing. When this information was obtained the results were so much more satisfactory that within the last 5 years approximately, 80,000 boiler hp. have been installed in plants ranging from 1000 to 20,000 boiler hp. rated capacity, which are operating at an average of 174 per cent. of rating. The first commercial installation for burning pulverized coal under boilers was made at the Parsons shops of the M. K. & T. railroad in 1916. Of eight 250-hp. water-tube boilers thus fitted, six were operated continuously for 3 yr., when oil was obtained at such a low price as to warrant its use. Since then, this plant has been operating alternately on pulverized coal and oil, depending on prevailing prices. Recently gas has been discovered within 20 mi. of this plant, so that this fuel may also be used. No change in furnace design was made when changing from pulverized coal to oil or gas firing. One of the principal advantages of this method of firing is its ability to utilize, with maximum efficiency, all kinds of coal, irrespective of quality or physical characteristics. In fact, quite a number of the present pulverized-coal installations were made for the purpose of utilizing coal that could not be marketed or used in any other way. The Pacific, Coast Coal Co., at Black Diamond, Wash., formerly hand fired the boilers, using approximately 125 tons of prepared steam-size coal daily. The Black Diamond steam coal is the best quality of coal for steaming purposes mined in that section of the country, and there is a market for all that can be produced. By installing a pulverizing plant, it was possible to substitute coal of a size and quality that had no commercial value, so that 125 tons daily of the best steam coal formerly used at the mines is now marketed.

Jan 12, 1921

By Dwight C. Roberts, Stender Sweeney

The spacing of wells in Long Beach oil field has caused much discussion from the earliest days of its development, on account of the closely drilled town-lot areas which have been as intensively developed as any productive areas in the world. The purpose of this paper is to present the results obtained from this type of development in comparison with the more widely spaced development in this field, now that a sufficient length of productive life has elapsed. The intensity of development in Long Beach is indicated by the fact that up to Sept. 1, 1929, there were 1736 wells either drilled or drilling. Of these 165 failed to get production and 121 were drilling. Thus 1450 wells have produced oil from an area of 1350 acres. Up to July 1, 1929, these wells produced a total of 35.5,047,913 barrels. Method Pursued Four groups of offset areas were chosen, in each group the wells in one area are widely spaced and in the other, closely spaced. The areas in each group are contiguous and the groups are spread over the field from the southeast end to the northwest, so that representative data are assured. The comparison has also been extended to shallow and deep zones, like zones in their respective areas being compared. Even though these productive zones are very thick, a fair picture of results is obtained, because the drilling of the wells in the two types of areas was concurrent in the different groups and, as a rule, the thickness of sand opened up at any one time was about the same. As deeper sands were found, wells in offset areas were deepened or new ones were drilled in both types of areas. The division of zones was made in the same manner in contiguous areas. The total cumulative production up to July 1, 1929, of the wells in their respective zones in each area was obtained. From these figures were computed the recovery per well, recovery per acre, acreage per well, and the ratios of these factors. Thus July 1, 1929, is the end of the period considered in all areas.

Jan 1, 1930

By Walter M. Stephen

MODERN developments in alloy steels have been so rapid and diverse that engineering practice has scarcely had time to re-appraise all items of past experience wherein conclusions became axiomatic under conditions that no longer apply. A case in point is the wet screening of abrasive ores within the fine range still looked upon as belonging exclusively to classifiers. By virtue of the development of stainless steels (18 per cent Cr, 8 per cent Ni), it is no longer true that classifiers are more economical than screens in closed circuit with large-tonnage ball or rod mills at 65 or even 100 mesh, provided a selective overgrind of the higher-gravity constituents of the ore is not desired. Wet screening of ores is a highly corrosive as well as an abrasive operation, because of the inevitably high degree of oxygenation of the water. Screen cloth of ordinary or spring-steel wire almost at once becomes pitted arid covered with a film of corrosion products, which causes rust-blinding of fine-mesh screens and offers high frictional impedance to the flow of ore particles. On the other hand, the well-known properties of stainless steel enable it to maintain a bright surface, and so to eliminate blinding either by ore particles or by corrosion products. That a large-tonnage mill grinding hard ore to 65 mesh can be operated economically in closed circuit with screens instead of classifiers has recently been demonstrated at the Copper Cliff concentrator of the International Nickel Co.; in the test to be described, a 6 ½ by 12 ½ -ft. Marcy rod mill ground from 625 to 820 tons of ore per day to approximately 65 mesh, operating in closed circuit with three 4 by 5-ft. Hum-mer screens, without any classifier. Stainless-steel cloth gave an indicated life of several months. There was no difficulty with blinding, yet dilution and spray water could be controlled so that screen undersize averaged not less than 40 per cent solids. In contrast, ordinary carbon steel was pitted and blind with rust within 40 hours.

Jan 1, 1938

By N. W. Ratliff, P. J. Closmann

Production of oil by expansion from a cylindrical reservoir composed of two concentric regions of different properties has been determined as a function of time for a reservoir producing at constant terminal pressure. The parameters involved are permeability, porosity, compressibility and oil viscosity. Results agree with those of a generally accepted method for uniform reservoirs when all parameters are taken as uniform. Cumulative production at any given time is reduced below that of the uniform reservoir when a region of considerably lower permeability adjoins the well; cumulative production increases when a high-permeability region adjoins the well. Curves are presented illustrating quantitative effects of these variations. INTRODUCTION Most petroleum reservoirs can be exploited by release of pressure and consequent expansion of underground fluid. During part of the production history of certain reservoirs by this mechanism, fluid compressibility can be considered small and constant. Cumulative fluid produced by this means as a function of time was calculated for a uniform reservoir by van Everdingen and Hurst.l For certain cases where a production well has been damaged or where an acid treatment has been used, a zone of properties different from those of the reservoir may be created around the production well. In such a case, expansion of the reservoir fluid takes place in a system composed of two concentric cylindrica1 regions of different reservoir properties. Such composite systems were studied in connection with heat flow by Jaeger2 who presented a solution for temperature distribution in a radial system with an infinitely large outer radius. Similar heat flow problems have been studied by other authors Oil production from composite reservoirs was studied for constant production rate by Hurst,4 Loucks and Guerrero,5 and Carter.6 THEORY This work considers constant terminal pressure. Cumulative flow is calculated for a composite bounded system in which no flow takes place across the outer boundary (Fig. 1). Since the flow is considered to be purely radial, the problem involves only one space dimension and time. It is convenient to define the following dimen-sionless pressure drops (Fig. 1).

By N. B. Wittman

Among the objects of interest which the members of the Institute are invited to examine in connection with this meeting is the Brown segmental wire-gun, which will be seen in process of construction at the works of the Pennsylvania Diamond Drill and Manufacturing Company, at Birdsboro. This is a 5-inch breech-loading (highpower) rifle, 19 feet long, constructed upon the system of Mr. J. H. Brown, an inventor of recognized genius in many branches of mechanical industry, and under the engineering direction of Lieutenant G. N. Whistler, Fifth U. S. Artillery. The system consists essentially of the subdivision of the inner core or tube of the gun, which takes up the initial compression, into longitudinal segments of such size that a higher physical condition and degree of special elasticity may be set up therein than it is possible to produce in the larger masses of metal heretofore used for the tube of the modern high-power cannon. The process consists in winding layers of square steel wire, subjected to a constant tension of 130,000 pounds per square inch, around these segments, which, when so held together, form the tube of the gun. A lining-tube may or may not be used. The steel segments used in the gun now under construction are 18 feet 4 inches long, and 3 inches thick at the breech, from which they taper to 0.8 inches at the muzzle. The physical condition of the segments has been determined by test-pieces, cut from each end of each segment, which show the following characteristics: Tensile strength, 165,000 pounds per square inch. Elastic limit, 105,000 pounds per square inch. Elongation at rupture, 14 per cent. in 2 inches. They are of crucible chrome steel, made by the Carpenter Steel Works, at Reading, Pa. The wire which holds them together has 0.005 square inches sectional area and is wound under a constant tension of 650 pounds on each strand, equivalent to 130,000 pounds per square inch. The winding has been done by a machine designed

Jan 1, 1893

By Henry Rogatz

Oil.—During the year 1938, there were 434 oil wells drilled in the Texas Panhandle, increasing the daily initial production by 192,706 bbl. —that is, 229 fewer oil wells drilled than in the previous year, with a decrease in total daily initial production of 129,626 bbl. The total daily potential of the field on Dec. 1, 1938, as determined by the Texas Railroad Commission, was 1,250,645 bbl., an increase of 210,663 bbl. over the previous year. On Dec. 1, 1938, the daily allowable of 82,466 bbl. was assigned to the field to be produced from 3931 wells. The total amount of oil produced for the year was 23,227,170 bbl. The total proven productive area includes 148,298 acres. This is 30,248 acres more than for last year, and represents a more accurate calculation of the areas and not new discoveries. Gas.—There were 103 gas wells drilled during 1938, having a combined open flow of 3,166,300,000 cu. ft.; that is, 65 less than the number of wells drilled in 1937, with a decrease in the open flow of 3,144,488 cu. ft. per day. Pipe-line Gas.—The pipe-line companies withdrew 230,307,854,000 cu. ft. of gas (a daily average of 630,980,000 cu. ft.). The total withdrawals by pipe line decreased 5,624,481,000 ft. from that of 1937. Natural Gaso1ine.—Throughout the greater part of the year, 46 gasoline-extraction plants processed 1,376,186,000 cu. ft. per day, a total of 502,308,010,000 cu. ft. for the year. This gas yielded about 275,875,000 gal. of natural gasoline. The total daily capacity of all the plants is 2,519,500,000 cu. ft. During the latter part of 1938, one of these plants was shut down, leaving 45 plants operating at the close of the year. Carbon Black.—Thirty carbon-black plants operated during 1938, burning 266,881,000,000 cu. ft., or a daily amount of 731,180,000 cu. ft. This produced approximately 400,000,000 lb. of carbon black. During the year one plant was dismantled and two plants were shut down.

Jan 1, 1939

By Henry Rogatz

Oil.—During the year 1938, there were 434 oil wells drilled in the Texas Panhandle, increasing the daily initial production by 192,706 bbl. —that is, 229 fewer oil wells drilled than in the previous year, with a decrease in total daily initial production of 129,626 bbl. The total daily potential of the field on Dec. 1, 1938, as determined by the Texas Railroad Commission, was 1,250,645 bbl., an increase of 210,663 bbl. over the previous year. On Dec. 1, 1938, the daily allowable of 82,466 bbl. was assigned to the field to be produced from 3931 wells. The total amount of oil produced for the year was 23,227,170 bbl. The total proven productive area includes 148,298 acres. This is 30,248 acres more than for last year, and represents a more accurate calculation of the areas and not new discoveries. Gas.—There were 103 gas wells drilled during 1938, having a combined open flow of 3,166,300,000 cu. ft.; that is, 65 less than the number of wells drilled in 1937, with a decrease in the open flow of 3,144,488 cu. ft. per day. Pipe-line Gas.—The pipe-line companies withdrew 230,307,854,000 cu. ft. of gas (a daily average of 630,980,000 cu. ft.). The total withdrawals by pipe line decreased 5,624,481,000 ft. from that of 1937. Natural Gaso1ine.—Throughout the greater part of the year, 46 gasoline-extraction plants processed 1,376,186,000 cu. ft. per day, a total of 502,308,010,000 cu. ft. for the year. This gas yielded about 275,875,000 gal. of natural gasoline. The total daily capacity of all the plants is 2,519,500,000 cu. ft. During the latter part of 1938, one of these plants was shut down, leaving 45 plants operating at the close of the year. Carbon Black.—Thirty carbon-black plants operated during 1938, burning 266,881,000,000 cu. ft., or a daily amount of 731,180,000 cu. ft. This produced approximately 400,000,000 lb. of carbon black. During the year one plant was dismantled and two plants were shut down.

Jan 1, 1939

By E. R. Stover, J. Wulff

A tentative 870°C isothermal section, the solidus equilibria, and the solubility of Tic and graphite in the nickel solid solution have been determined with arc-cast specimens. Each of the Ni-Ti intermetallics forms two-phase fields with Tic; only Ti,Ni has a measurable solubility for carbon. A quasi-binary eutectic exists between Tic: and a titanium-rich nickel solid solution; ternary eutectics occur on either side, with TiNis or with graphite. Graphite is in equilibrium with a nickel solid solution containing a ratio of Ti/C which increases below the solidus. DURING the past decade, titanium-carbide cermets containing nickel or cobalt alloy binders have been widely studied for high-temperature and wear-resistant applications. Recent work has emphasized control of the carbide grain size and distribution2's and the thermal exparision match between the phases/ The present study was initiated to determine the phase compositions during the sintering or infiltration process, and during subsequent heating. Although the effects of additives and impurities in commercial compositions are important, it was necessary to consider first the pure ternary, Ni-Ti-C. Emphasis was placed on the nickel corner, since the nickel solid solution is the continuous phase in compositions having highest strength. Early metallographic work by Zarubin and Molkov- showed that solid solubility at either end of the section Ni-Tic is small. Edwards and Raine reported that nickel dissolves between 3 and 5 wt pct Tic at 1250° C, on the basis of microstructures of annealed, vacuum-melted powder mixtures. Although the solubility of nickel in Tic has not been measured, Tic formed by the menstruum process in liuid-iron solution contains as little as 0.06 wt pct Fe. BINARY SYSTEMS The most recent determinations of the three binary systems are summarized in Fig. 1. Titanium carbide (6) is predominant among the binary phases, and it melts above the boiling point of nickel. The Ni-C binary is based on separate liquid solubility' ) and solid solubilitylo measurements. The eutectic temperature, 1328OC, is taken from the solidus determination described below. However thermal analysis data by Morrogh and williams also show eutectic arrests in this vicinity in the absence of supercooling. The Ni-Ti binary is taken from the work of Poole

Jan 1, 1960

By T. L. Joseph

Blast furnaces are most efficient thermally when the CO2 in the top gas is highest. Oxygen introduced in the air blast is converted to CO in the combustion zones. The extent to which CO, generated in front of the tuyeres, is converted later to CO2 depends upon the ratio of ore to coke in the charge and the degree to which CO2, formed by reduction of iron oxides with CO, reverts to CO by the secondary reaction C + CO2 = 2CO. About 300 to 400 lb. of carbon' per ton of pig iron is normally involved in the solution-loss reaction or direct reduction of FeO with carbon, which produces the same over-all results; that is, lower CO2 in the top gas. Rich2 has recently reported a reduction in fuel consumption at slower rates of blowing on two furnaces in spite of higher heat losses per ton of iron. Lower fuel consumption at slow operating rates was due to more complete reduction of the ore that resulted in higher CO2 in the top gas and consequently more efficient use of carbon. Kinney3 has reported substantial savings in fuel as a result of crushing and sizing the ore charge. Improvements in practice brought about by sintering magnetite concentrates, flue dust and fine ores have been due to the establishment of conditions favoring more complete reduction of the ore in the upper part of the furnace. The extent to which oxides and fluctuations in composition in pig iron affect the quality of steel and finished product needs further study. There is evidence that more thorough preheating and reduction of the ore in the upper part of the furnace tend to give a better quality of iron. Bogatzkii4 found from laboratory work that the amount of oxygen entering electrolytic iron, melted under various slags, was directly proportional to the concentration of free FeO in the slag and inversely proportional to the basicity of the slag. Herty and Gaines5 concluded that the silicate content of open-hearth steel before deoxidation is related to the concentration of silica in the pig-iron charge, indicating that most of the persistent inclusions are silica from the iron. They also found that

Jan 1, 1936

By T. L. Joseph

Blast furnaces are most efficient thermally when the CO2 in the top gas is highest. Oxygen introduced in the air blast is converted to CO in the combustion zones. The extent to which CO, generated in front of the tuyeres, is converted later to CO2 depends upon the ratio of ore to coke in the charge and the degree to which CO2, formed by reduction of iron oxides with CO, reverts to CO by the secondary reaction C + CO2 = 2CO. About 300 to 400 lb. of carbon' per ton of pig iron is normally involved in the solution-loss reaction or direct reduction of FeO with carbon, which produces the same over-all results; that is, lower CO2 in the top gas. Rich2 has recently reported a reduction in fuel consumption at slower rates of blowing on two furnaces in spite of higher heat losses per ton of iron. Lower fuel consumption at slow operating rates was due to more complete reduction of the ore that resulted in higher CO2 in the top gas and consequently more efficient use of carbon. Kinney3 has reported substantial savings in fuel as a result of crushing and sizing the ore charge. Improvements in practice brought about by sintering magnetite concentrates, flue dust and fine ores have been due to the establishment of conditions favoring more complete reduction of the ore in the upper part of the furnace. The extent to which oxides and fluctuations in composition in pig iron affect the quality of steel and finished product needs further study. There is evidence that more thorough preheating and reduction of the ore in the upper part of the furnace tend to give a better quality of iron. Bogatzkii4 found from laboratory work that the amount of oxygen entering electrolytic iron, melted under various slags, was directly proportional to the concentration of free FeO in the slag and inversely proportional to the basicity of the slag. Herty and Gaines5 concluded that the silicate content of open-hearth steel before deoxidation is related to the concentration of silica in the pig-iron charge, indicating that most of the persistent inclusions are silica from the iron. They also found that

Jan 1, 1936

By John Rogers

The goal of a detailed quantitative understanding of the variables insulfide flotation in terms of established, or new, scientific principles is still distant, although there has been a good beginning in the past 50 years with more rapid progress since 1930. Advances have paralleled closely those in other branches of surface chemistry and the development of a series of experimental techniques such as contact angle, surface area measurement, radioactive tracers, infrared spectra, electron diffraction, monolayer, and electro- chemical methods of investigation. The second editions of books by Sutherland and Warkl ( 1955) and Gaudin2 ( 19571, are detailed accounts of this progress. The complexity of sulfide mineral flotation systems is indicated by Sutherland and Warkl who list 32 variables of flotation, of which only 22 can usually be controlled by the metallurgist. A consequence of this multiplicity of variables, many of which may be specific to each particular ore, is that ways of floating sulfide minerals from new ores are still developed empirically. How- ever, this review will try to show how the chemistry of the function of frothers, collectors, depressants, and activators in sulfide flotation is being steadily unravelled. Chiefly, it will be concerned with the interaction of pure soluble compounds with individual sulfide minerals, the surfaces of which are often not stoichiometric for several reasons discussed by Plaksin.3 As a result, for example, a freshly cleaved galena surface has cathodic and anodic areas which have different degrees of oxidation and different reactivity to- wards collectors like xanthate. Such complicating considerations should be remembered in the subsequent discussion of pure minerals. THE NEED FOR FLOTATION REAGENTS After considerable controversy it has been established with a few exceptions that unoxidized, uncontaminated sulfides will not float. Moreover all flotation plants recovering sulfide minerals use collectors which are removed from the circuit with the sulfides. Gaudin, Miaw, and Spedden4 have discussed the relation between the crystal structure of solids and the native floatability of the exceptions mentioned above. A second question which has been much explored is the nature of the surface on which a collector like xanthate is adsorbed or reacts. Is this the un- changed surface of the sulfide mineral, or does the adsorption depend on the initial oxidation of the sulfide surface ? Sutherland and Warkl and Gaudin2 discuss the work of Taggart5 and others on this question without reaching any other conclusion than that oxygen was important.

Jan 1, 1962

By N. Brown, H. Green

The effect of quenching temperature and of aging temperature and time on compression stress-strain curves of ß brass was investigated. Age softening occurs at a rate which decreases with decrease of quenching temperature below the critical temperature for ordering. The activation energy for softening is 15,400 cal per mol. No matter how rapidly brass is quenched or what the temperature from which it is quenched, practically complete order is obtained at room temperature. It has been demonstrated that with respect to the specific heat,',' electrical resistivity," X-ray diffraction, and microstructure, the slowly cooled and rapidly quenched specimens are the same and that complete long range order exists in both cases. However, Smith" showed that the hardness of ß brass depended upon the cooling rate and the temperature from which brass is quenched. Smith showed that the hardness was a maximum for specimens quenched from about 445 °C and that the as-quenched structure softened at room temperature at a rate depending upon the temperature prior to quenching. This softening after quenching is in this paper referred to as age softening. The results of this investigation are qualitatively the same as the findings of Smith. However, a more detailed analysis of these phenomena has been possible since the stress-strain curve offers a more sensitive index of the state of the metal than hardness. It is the purpose of this paper to show how the mechanical properties are related to the ordering of ß brass. A 200-lb ingot made from electrolytic copper and electrolytic zinc was extruded to 1/2in. rod. Chemical analyses at frequent intervals along the rod showed that the alloy contained 51.5 pct Cu with the greatest impurity being iron, at 0.01 to 0.001 pct. To obtain a constant test material, the 1/2in. extruded rod was warm-rolled to % in. diameter at 200°C and then recrystallized to a grain size of 2.0 mm. The specimens for the compression test were % in. high and % in. in diameter. The specimen ends were polished on 600 metallographic paper and coated with Molykote for a lubricant. The compression rig consisted of an anvil resting on the machined table of the Baldwin Southwark testing machine and a plunger fixed to the movable cross

Jan 1, 1954

By W. G. Woolf, E. R. Crutcher

The electrolytic zinc plant of the Sullivan Mining Co. is in Government Gulch, at Silver King, Shoshone County, Idaho, in the Coeur d'Alene mining district, about one mile from the Bunker Hill smelter and about three miles from Kellogg. The Sullivan Mining Co., which owns both the zinc plant and the Star mine, is itself owned jointly by the Bunker Hill & Sullivan Mining & Concentrating Co, and the Hecla Mining Company. The Tainton high-density, high-acid process is used at this plant, therefore some parts of its flowsheet differ markedly from those of electrolytic plants using the low-density process. While it is a custom plant and has treated a variety of zinc concentrates originating from various sources in a number of states, it has obtained its main supply of zinc concentrates chiefly from the zinc-bearing ores of the Coeur d'A1ene mining district, of which the principal important sources have been the Bunker Hill and Star mines. Thus the main feed has been zinc concentrates obtained from complex lead-zinc-silver ores. For the year of 1935 the concentrates had the following composition: water, 9.5 per cent; Zn, 50.6; Pb, 3.3; Fe, 9.4; S, 31.0; Cu, 0.2; insoluble, 2.9. Flowsheet The concentrates are delivered to the plant in railroad cars, which discharge into storage bins directly under the track. Bottom-dump cars are dropped directly into the bins while a slip scraper, pulled by an air tugger hoist, is used to empty box cars. There are five storage bins for concentrates, each of approximately 300 tons capacity. At the bottom of each bin there are individual belt feeders that discharge onto a common conveyor belt, which in turn discharges to another belt that carries the concentrate onto a weightometer belt for weighing. Immediately after the weighing, the crushed oversize return from the roasters is added to the load on the belt and then the ground-up sweepings, lumps and roaster cleanings. An electromagnet at the end of this conveyor removes tramp iron from the feed. The belt discharges to a set of 30 by 12-in. rolls, which break up lumps or frozen chunks of concentrate, etc. Beneath the rolls there is a screw conveyor, which conveys the roll discharge to a

Jan 1, 1937

By P. H. Dudley

I HAVE taken the liberty of calling the researches herein mentioned industrial, to distinguish them from those strictly scientific, where every known appliance is used to insure accuracy in determining principles. The industrial researches are made to ascertain wherein we have failed to embody, in practice, the principles which have been fully demonstrated by the more purely scientific investigations. So far the researches have been mostly confined to the conditions of combustion as used in locomotive furnaces, although we have examined, to some extent, furnaces under marine and stationary boilers. The products of complete combustion are gases, and, knowing what we should have, it is at once shown by analyzing the products whether the desired reactions are taking place. In spite of imperfect furnaces, lack of system in the arrangement of grate-bars and exhaust nozzles, the results are not altogether vitiated, because the analyses are not closer than one-tenth of one per cent., as under the present conditions it is hardly possible to collect gas exactly under the same conditions at different times. All of our industrial operations have developed in the past few years so rapidly, nearly all of them paying, that, until within the past three years, comparatively little attention has been given to their economy outside of the profession. Great corporations have not asked and considered the question in earnest, can we utilize our heat so as to produce the same effect at less cost? The applications of heat are so extensive, entering into every branch of industry, the principal power used to carry on metallurgical processes, to conduct transportation, that its economical generation becomes of universal importance; in fact, its economical generation and application is the leading industrial question of the day. It is stated by those who have given the subject much attention, that in our best steam-engines not over 10 per cent of the theoretical value of the fuel is utilized, and upon locomotives it is far less, probably not exceeding under the most favorable circumstances 5 or 6 per cent. In recent experiments made with the dynagraph, in drawing trains upon the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway from Cleveland to Erie, 95i miles, we found the force required to draw a stock train of 709 tons to be 2,498,396,320 foot-pounds, exclusive of the force to move the locomotive itself. We

Jan 1, 1876

By P. H. Dudley

I have taken the liberty of calling the researches herein mentioned industrial, to distinguish them from those strictly scientific, where every known appliance is used to insure accuracy in determining principles. The industrial researches are made to ascertain wherein we have failed to embody, in practice, the principles which have been fully demonstrated by the more purely scientific investigations. So far the researches have been mostly confined to the conditions of combustion as used in locomotive furnaces, although we have examined, to some extent, furnaces under marine and stationary boilers. The products of complete combustion are gases, and, knowing what we should have, it is at once shown by analyzing the products whether the desired reactions are taking place. In spite of imperfect furnaces, lack of system in the arrangement of grate-bars and exhaust nozzles, the results are not altogether vitiated, because the analyses are not closer than one-tenth of one per cent., as under the present conditions it is hardly possible to collect gas exactly under the same conditions at different times. All of 'our industrial operations have developed in the past few years so rapidly, nearly all of them paying, that,, until within the past three years, comparatively little attention has been given to their economy outside of the profession. Great corporations have not asked and considered the question in earnest, can we utilize our heat so as to produce the same effect at less cost? The applications of heat are so extensive, entering into every branch of industry, the principal power used to carry on metallurgical processes, to conduct transportation, that its econonlical generation becomes of universal importance; in fact, its economical generation and application is the leading industrial question of the day. It is stated by those who have given the subject much attention, that in our best steam-engines not over 10 per cent of the theoretical value of the fuel is utilized, and upon locomotives it is far less, probably not exceeding under the most favorable circumstances 5 or 6 per cent. In recent experiments made with the dynagraph, in drawing trains upon the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway from Cleveland to Erie, 941/2 miles, we found the force required to draw a stock train of 709 tons to be 2,498,396,320 footpounds, exclusive of the force to move the locomotive itself. We