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Jan 1, 1924

By W. A. Koehler, M. E. Hinkle

THE oxidation of pyrites and marcasite in coal-mine strata to produce discolored acid mine drainage has long been explained by chemical reactions occurring in three stages: 1. The iron sulphide minerals are oxidized by air in the presence of water to produce a nearly colorless solution of ferrous (iron) sulphate and some sulphuric acid. 2, The ferrous sulphate and part of the sulphuric acid combine with additional oxygen to form ferric (iron) sulphate. 3. The ferric sulphate hydrolyzes to form a reddish-brown precipitate and additional sulphuric acid. Nevertheless, chemical data alone are not sufficient to explain all observed facts. The first stage seems to proceed more slowly in the chemical laboratory than in nature. The second and third stages normally occur to a marked extent within a few days with raw mine water. However, the visible discoloration that characterizes these latter stages will not develop for months if the mine water is sterilized. By means of bacteriological techniques, two organisms have been isolated from acid coal-mine drainage. These are believed to have a part in promoting the chemical reactions summarized above. One organism is considered to be Thio-6aciZZus thiooxidans, which is known to be able to convert elementary sulphur or sodium thiosulphate to sulphuric acid. Its relation to the formation of acid mine drainage has not Yet been established. Apparently it does not Promote the oxidation of ferrous iron compounds in mine drainage to the ferric state. The second organism has not been identified by name but is described as " Gram negative, non-spore-forming rods approximately 0.4 micron wide by 0.8 to 1.0 micron long." A pure culture of this when added to sterile mine water will cause the latter to become amber and develop the typical rusty precipitate. However, it has not been found to convert sulphur compounds to sulphuric acid. Further research is planned to determine whether or not these microorganisms play a significant part in the first stage of oxidation whereby pyrites and marcasite minerals go into solution. Some of the conditions found in abandoned sections of coal mines, such as a reduced Percentage of Oxygen and increased percentage of carboll 'dioxide in the air, as well as the existing temperature and acidity ranges, will be tolerated by and may even be favorable to these organisms. Acid Coal Mine Drainage Acid coal mine drainage has been the concern of coal mine operators, industrialists, sportsmen and public officials for many years. The amount of acid flowing into our streams in the coal-producing areas varies considerably from mine to mine and from

Jan 1, 1949

By M. S. Miller, R. H. Mullennex

The growing need for development of thinner, more erratic, or less easily-mined coals in the Appalachian region requires more detailed analysis of conditions and factors controlling or influencing deposition of these seams. The value of depositional modeling in evaluation of such coals has been demonstrated in many recent studies and publications. Such modeling may be applied to allow prediction of factors varying from regional coal occurrence trends to very local areas of seam discontinuities but requires thorough we of all available types of data. Mapping of general depositional energies, as derived from basic geophysical and driller's logs, can be applied to specific prediction of coal occurrence, and projection of particular facies as representative of unique depositional features or conditions may prove more applicable to coal character delineation than mapping of the coal itself. Depositional modeling and trend projection may also serve as a guideline in reserve classification and confidence levels in reserve estimations.

Jan 1, 1983

By Fred Van Covern

Before getting into a discussion of the subject of my paper, I want first to make it clear to everyone that I am speaking as an individual; and that any expressions of opinion that are contained herein, or may be expressed in any oral discussion that may follow its presentation, are entirely my own, and must not be construed to be the official opinion of the American Petroleum Institute. Demand fob Motor Fuel, 1936 During the year just closed the domestic demand for gasoline exceeded 481 million barrels. This compares with 434,810,000 bbl. consumed during 1935 and indicates an increase of 10.46 per cent. Export shipments amounted to 27,831,000 bbl. while in 1935 they totaled 30,613,000 bbl. Total demand, therefore, was 509,422,000 bbl., or 9.16 per cent above the 465,423,000 bbl. of 1935. Following are the figures for several years: Already we are supplying gasoline domestically and as foreign shipments at a rate almost 25 per cent greater than our low level of 1933. Before giving figures for 1937, I should like to spend a moment or two in discussion of gasoline inventories, from the point of view of minimum working stocks and other requirements and of probable actual levels. Inventories of Gasoline The year 1936 closed with about 62,900,000 bbl. of finished and unfinished gasoline in storage—about 6 million barrels more than was on hand

Jan 1, 1937

Geostatistics originated as an application of a classical statistical concept, multivariate linear regression, to the solution of a practical problem, estimation of reserves in the South African gold mines. In this respect, geostatistics should only be considered as one statistical method among many that can be used to evaluate mineral deposits. R.F. Shurtz has studied possible applications of power spectrum analysis to the same problem, and these studies may result in future improvements over the presently accepted geostatistical methodology. The intention of R.F. Shurtz's paper, as stated by the author, is to "relate geostatistical doctrine to classical statistical and mathematical concepts." However, in this comparison the "geostatistical doctrine" appears to include only the simplest among the geostatistical concepts advocated by G. Matheron, while "classical statistical and mathematical concepts" are limited nearly exclusively to power spectrum analysis. The author attempts to compare the two methods, and to prove the theoretical superiority of power spectrum analysis. Unfortunately, a number of errors and incorrect statements are made concerning both the theory and application of geostatistics, which invalidate the comparison and the conclusions drawn from it. The errors made in this comparison are understandable since few scientists can claim to have expertise in two theories as diverse as those compared here. In many respects, this paper is reminiscent of polemics which occurred 15 to 20 years ago when geostatistics and trend surface analysis were compared. Each method has its own merit and limitations, and none can claim absolute superiority. The most misleading statements found in R.F. Shurtz's paper are: The definition of the semivariogram given on page 1923 is incorrect. If the maximum difference between two assays is 1, the maximum value of the semivariogram is not 1, as stated, but 0.5. The comparison of geostatistics and linear regression made in the section entitled "Insufficiency of Classical Statistics?" is not valid. The semivariogram of the sample values given in Table 1 (page 1919) has a parabolic shape indicative of a linear drift. When such a semivariogram is observed, the simplest method of geostatistical estimation (linear kriging with unknown mean) is not applicable. Universal kriging must be used that takes trends into account. On page 1921 it is stated that the use of trends "is officially disparaged in geostatistics." Again on page 1924 mention is made to "Matheron's commitment to random process (intrinsic) models and his present categorical rejection of deterministic (trend) models for mineral deposit evaluation." Indeed, from articles published by geostatisticians in the 1960s one could infer that geostatistical methods are not compatible with the presence of trends. However, even the simplest

Jan 1, 1984

Jan 1, 1915

Jan 1, 1948

By John W. Buch

NeaRly 25 years ago operating officials in the northern anthracite field were confronted with the problem of profitably mining virgin beds of thin coal (those 48 in. and under) or destroying them by mining underlying thick beds. To solve this problem costly hand-mining methods were replaced by cheaper mechanical methods, which eliminated the need for the lifting of bottom or the brushing of top in excessive quantities, which was essential if proper height for hand loading1 was to be provided. During this period long-face mining was an outstanding development. In its favor in comparison with any other method were the ease with which undercutting machines could be used, a differential in powder cost of about fifteen cents per ton in favor of this method over mining from a solid chamber or pillar face, and a greater production per day from a single working place, resulting in lower capital expenditures for a given total production, closer supervision and lower transportation cost. The long faces were drilled by jackhammer and undercut by machines. The coal from the cut was loaded into mine cars placed on the gangway road by means of a double-drum mechanical scraper engine and a mechanical V-type scoop. A tugger hoist was used to spot empty cars at the loading point from a supply placed at the operation by an electric mine locomotive. During loading the roof was supported by vertical wooden props paralleling the face. After the loading was completed the scraper engine and the ropes that had been used to propel the scoop in the loading of coal transferred the props to and along the face. A row of unfilled cogs was then built parallel to the new face and about 6 ft. from it. These cogs were usually made 6 by 3 ft., the longer dimension paralleling the face; they were placed on an average at 12-ft. centers. These wooden cogs were left in place and were buried later by falling roof. Attempts to remove them were never successful. When a new long face was started, the cog spacing would be increased to about 20-ft. centers. As successive cuts were made, weight would begin on the cogs, and they

Jan 1, 1940

By John W. Buch

NeaRly 25 years ago operating officials in the northern anthracite field were confronted with the problem of profitably mining virgin beds of thin coal (those 48 in. and under) or destroying them by mining underlying thick beds. To solve this problem costly hand-mining methods were replaced by cheaper mechanical methods, which eliminated the need for the lifting of bottom or the brushing of top in excessive quantities, which was essential if proper height for hand loading1 was to be provided. During this period long-face mining was an outstanding development. In its favor in comparison with any other method were the ease with which undercutting machines could be used, a differential in powder cost of about fifteen cents per ton in favor of this method over mining from a solid chamber or pillar face, and a greater production per day from a single working place, resulting in lower capital expenditures for a given total production, closer supervision and lower transportation cost. The long faces were drilled by jackhammer and undercut by machines. The coal from the cut was loaded into mine cars placed on the gangway road by means of a double-drum mechanical scraper engine and a mechanical V-type scoop. A tugger hoist was used to spot empty cars at the loading point from a supply placed at the operation by an electric mine locomotive. During loading the roof was supported by vertical wooden props paralleling the face. After the loading was completed the scraper engine and the ropes that had been used to propel the scoop in the loading of coal transferred the props to and along the face. A row of unfilled cogs was then built parallel to the new face and about 6 ft. from it. These cogs were usually made 6 by 3 ft., the longer dimension paralleling the face; they were placed on an average at 12-ft. centers. These wooden cogs were left in place and were buried later by falling roof. Attempts to remove them were never successful. When a new long face was started, the cog spacing would be increased to about 20-ft. centers. As successive cuts were made, weight would begin on the cogs, and they

Jan 1, 1940

By Paul L. Russell

THIS is a progress report of an experiment being undertaken in cooperation with the Bethlehem Steel Corp., the Crucible Steel Co., and the Rock Bit Sales and Service Co., involving heat treatment of the shank ends of drill steel. This experiment is being conducted by the U. S. Bureau of Mines in its experimental mine, Mining Research Branch, Bluemont, Va. The purpose of the experiment is to determine the effect of an increase in the time the steel soaks in the furnace during the hardening heat. It has been thought that increasing this time produces a soft zone below the lugs resulting in a metallurgical notch that causes early failure. Each of the steel companies furnished enough 11/4 - in. straight carbon, hollow, round steel to make up 10 sets of drill steel, in each instance the steel bars were from the same heat. These sets of drill steel, consisting of 2-ft, 4-ft, 6-ft, and 8-ft lengths were fabricated by the Rock Bit Sales and Service Co. Special attention was given to the forging of the steel to produce the best rods possible. The heat treatment of all thread ends was identical and followed the best practice. The heat treatment of the shank ends of five sets of steel from each company produced a soft zone 2 to 4 in. in front of the lugs. It was decided that possibly the best way to obtain this effect was not to overlap the hardening heat but to let the steel soak for an additional 30 min before quenching. Therefore the only variable in the test steels is the length of time the shank ends were in the furnace. The remaining drill steel shanks were treated as follows: Heat treatment in pyrometer-controlled furnace at 1550°F. Quenching oil at 105°F to 125°F temperature. Areas for heat treatment were; shanks, 11 in.; threads, 9 in. Time at heat, standard practice, 20 min for 11/4-in. steel. Actual drilling tests were made in greenstone, (a metamorphosed basaltic rock), and in epidosite. Greenstone has a specific gravity of 2.96 and a compressive strength of 44,200 psi. Epidosite has a specific gravity of 3.26 and a compressive strength of 63,100 psi. All drilling tests were made using a 31/2-in. column-mounted, automatic feed drifter, with a controlled air pressure of 90 psi at the throttle. Tungsten-carbide bits of 2 in. diameter were used for all drilling. Contrary to expectations the drill steels that were allowed to soak for the additional 30 min before quenching performed better than the steels that were heat treated according to standard practice. This performance, as shown in Table I, was especially noticeable in the drilling of epidosite. The "longheat" drill steels furnished by Company "A" drilled 154 pct more minutes than the "standard-heat" steel. Expressed in feet, the "long-heat" steel drilled 114.60 ft more before failure than the "standard-heat" steel. The "long-heat" steel furnished by Company "B" drilled 37 pet more minutes or 60.39 ft more before failure than the "standard-heat" drill steel. The effect of the long heat treatment was not as evident when the steels were drilling in greenstone (Table II). In greenstone, the increase in minutes drilled by the "long-heat" steel over the "standard-heat" steel was 47 pet and 1 pet, respectively, for Companies "A" and "B."

Jan 1, 1952

Jan 1, 1944

Jan 1, 1969

Jan 1, 1944

By Joseph D. Weeks

NOTE BY THE SECRETARY.—This address having been made the object of much hostile comment, arising, as Mr. Weeks believed, in large part from misunderstanding of its purpose and meaning, was, by his express direction, withheld from official publication in the Transactions until he should have so modified or added to it as to make such misunderstanding impossible. His illness and death prevented him from executing this intention; and, consequently, the only version of the address now in the Secretary's hands is one of which the author had forbidden the publication. Under the circumstances, therefore, it seems best to publish, in this place, only some portions of the address and its appendixes which have a historical value and are beyond controversy, giving at the same time a summary of its general nature, based upon the original manuscript and upon correspondence with Mr. Weeks. For this summary, the Secretary is alone responsible. The address was essentially a restatement of well-known and established facts, which it interpreted as proving that, of the three elements of the Bessemer process (namely, the pneumatic principle, the successful mechanical application of that principle, and the recarburization with spiegeleisen), William Kelly was the first inventor of the first, Bessemer of the second, and Mushet of the third. Mr. Weeks used the words " original inventor " in the sense (as he explained in one place) of first inventor, and neither asserted nor believed that Bessemer's con-

Jan 1, 1897

By NEWTON C. MARSHALL

AS every school boy knows, the Andes mountain range forms the backbone of South America, extending the full length of the continent along its western edge and fairly close to the Pacific coast. But in Colombia these mountains are divided into three distinct ranges known as the Western, Central and Eastern ranges of the Andes. United at the southern end, they spread out like three fingers in a northerly direction across the Republic of Colombia. These great natural barriers have only in recent years been tarried by railroads or wagon roads, and they have had their effect upon the history of the country, both political and ethnological. Each of the three ranges dies out and dwindles away before reaching the boundary of Colombia on the Caribbean Sea. When I studied my geography as a youngster 1 used to think that the

Jan 1, 1935

New York, March 18, 1913. MR. CHARLES F. RA ND, President, New YORK, MARCH American Institute of Mining Engineers. Dear Sir: In connection with the official notice of Dr. Raymond's unanimous election by the Directors as Secretary Emeritus, we wish to place upon record certain statements concerning his services to the Institute which we think have not been published., and may not be generally known to the majority of our fellow-members. When the Institute was formed in 1871, Dr. Raymond acted as Secretary of the Founders' Meeting, and became the first Vice-President of the Institute, and, by request of the aged and beloved David Thomas, who was the first President of the Institute, Dr. Raymond discharged all the duties of the office of President, to which he was later formally elected in 1872, and which lip held for three years. During that time, he visited Europe, and through his acquaintance and reputation abroad, established those international relations of the Institute which proved so important in later years. He also enlisted the support of the mining engineers and metallurgists of the Pacific Slope, who would not otherwise have been disposed to join a society originating in the East. And for twelve years he attended; at his own expense, nearly every meeting of the Institute, wherever held, giving to it without remuneration his best service, and sacrificing for it many professional and private interests.

Jan 4, 1913

JOSEPH W. RICHARDS, Chairman. J. E. JOHNSON, JR., Vice-Chairman. ARTHUR S. CALLEN, Secretary, 453 Chestnut St., So. Bethlehem, Pa. SUB-COMMITTEES IRON ORE DWIGHT E. WOODBRIDGE, Chairman. ERNEST F. BURCHARD, WILLIAM KELLY, CHARLES F. RAND, FELIX A. VOGEL. BLAST FURNACES II. A. BRASSERT, Chairman. WILLIAM H. BLAUVELT, AMBROSE N. DIEHL, JAMES GAYLEY RICHARD V. McKAY. STEEL WORKS HENRY D. HIBBARD, Chairman. GUILLIAEM AERTSEN, C. F. W. RYS, .1. S. UNGER. FRANK D. CARNEY, A. A. STEVENSON, WILLIAM It. WALKER. MECHANICAL TREATMENT CHARLES A. BUCK, Chairman. ROBERT W. HUNT, GEORGE MESTA, FREDERICK W. WOOD.

Jan 6, 1915

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEES OF LOCAL SECTIONS New York LOUIS D. HUNTOON, Chairman. ARTHUR S. DWIGHT, Vice-Chairman. THOMAS T. READ, Secretary, Woolworth Bldg., New York, N. Y. E. MALTBY SHIPP, Treasurer. GEORGE F. KUNZ, W. DE L. BENEDICT. Boston ROBERT H. RICHARDS, Chairman. ALBERT SAUVEUR, Vice-Chairman. AUGUSTUS H. EUSTIS, Secretary-Treasurer, 131 State St., Boston, Mass. TIMOTHY W. SPRAGUE, HENRY A. WENTWORTH.

Jan 2, 1914

The volumes of Transactions, which are published annually, contain the list of officers, rules, etc , the Proceedings, and the papers revised for final publication (In this revision, after the prelimi¬nary publication, authors are permitted to use the largest liberty , and the changes and additions made in papers are sometimes important It should be borne in mind by those who study or quote a paper in the preliminary edition, that they may not have in that form the ultimate and deliberate expression of the author's views It should be added, however, that in the majority of cases there are no important changes) These volumes are for sale as follows, in paper covers

Jan 1, 1910

By R. R. Templeton

THE year 1924 was particularly notable in the petroleum industry of California as it was a period in which extensive town-lot drilling, with attendant overproduction and allied problems, virtually ceased and the industry returned to a nearly normal condition. Nearly all major field operations were conducted by large operating and marketing companies; in contrast to 1922 and 1923 field operations, when small promotion companies set the pace and forced the large companies to follow. The outstanding features of petroleum development were: 1. The three major fields of 1923, namely Huntington Beach, Long Beach, and Santa Fe Springs, declined from a production of 13,042,939 bbl., in January, to 6,764,417 bbl., in December, a drop of nearly 52 per cent: During this period, Huntington Beach declined 35 per cent., Long Beach 42 per cent., and Santa Fe Springs 63 per cent. 2. Methods of pumping deep wells were improved in some particulars; this contributed toward sustaining the productions of these three famous fields above what was predicted. 3. Of the fields producing previous to 1924, only three increased in production to any appreciable degree, during the year, as the result of bringing in new wells. These fields are Dominguez, Torrance, and Wheeler Ridge. Dominguez, discovered in September, 1923, produced 56,851 bbl. in January and increased regularly to a production of 1,641,042 bbl. in December. Torrance increased from a production of 972,261 bbl. in January, to 1,783,670 bbl., in May, and then declined to 1,393,215 bbl. in December. Wheeler Ridge, discovered in January, 1923, produced 23,254 bbl., in January, 1924, increased to a high of 33,678 bbl., in September, and declined to 27,430 bbl. in December. 4. Nearly all the production that had been shut-in during 1923 was opened in 1924, except some wells chiefly in Coalinga, Fullerton, and Santa Maria districts. The opening up of this shut-in production, combined with the increased productions from Dominguez and Torrance, were the chief factors that held the rate of decline for the state to a gentle slope.

Jan 7, 1925